Flexible Work Practices and Firm Characteristics Essays -- Business Ma

Presentation An expanding measure of organizations are actualizing adaptable work rehearses as more US families have double wages, working longer hours, and work power investment rates increment (Winder, 2009). Adaptable work practices can empower laborers with care offering obligations to perform at their pinnacle limit as opposed to fitting in with standard work routines that smother their endeavors to succeed (Glass, 2004). In the event that, genuine the profitability of laborers should ascend with the utilization of adaptable work rehearses and ought to be decidedly connected with upgraded wage development after some time. This efficiency improving impact ought to especially prompt higher compensation development among those hindered by unbending work routines and extended periods of time of work, in particular moms of ward youngsters (Sharpe, Hermsen and Billings, 2002). Anyway this may not be the situation with ladies. As of now ladies are not on par dollar for dollar with men. However fina ncial analysts believe that the hole between pay for ladies and men is because of various individual decisions people make about close to home satisfaction, youngster raising and hours at work. Following this further, in the past ladies would decide to work less hours to designate more opportunity to their kids, however there is an expanding number of ladies who keep on working fulltime all through parenthood with the assistance of strategic scheduling (Glass, 2004). Anyway these ladies despite everything experience a similar example of compensation stagnation (McCrate, 2005). Guardians are utilizing adaptable work choices yet moms seem, by all accounts, to be punished for it. Already in this paper it was expressed that strategic scheduling empowers laborers to accomplish the equivalent or more noteworthy profitability levels than normalized plans. So with different variables being represented, for example, character, rank, money related sta... ...em? American Behavioral Scientist, 44(7), 1157-1178. Goldin, C. and Katz, L. (2011). The Cost of Workplace Flexibility for High-Powered Professionals. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 638(1), 1-23. McCrate, E. (2005). Adaptable Hours, Workplace Authoirty. what's more, Compensating Wage Differentials in the US. Women's activist Economics, 11(1), 11-39. Ralson, D.A. (1989). The Benefits of flextime:Real or Imagined? Diary of Organizational Behavior, 10 (4), 369-373 Ralston, D. (1990). How flexitime facilitates work-family pressures. Staff, 67, 45-48. Sharpe, D. L., Hermsen, J. M., and Billings, J. (2002). Sexual orientation contrasts being used of elective all day work courses of action of wedded specialists. Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 31, 78-111. Winder, K. (2009). Adaptable Work Arrangements and Wages: Do Firm Characteristics Matter.

Benefits of NASA Essay -- essays research papers

     Since the get-go there have consistently been those that have restricted investigation of strange terrains. This announcement holds truth additionally for the NASA program since the starting when President John F. Kennedy's vision was to ‘land a man on the moon before the decade's over.' Instead of all the restriction of NASA and questions, for example, â€Å"Why should we go to space?† I accept individuals ought to ask themselves, â€Å"Why shouldn’t we go to space?† Christopher Columbus didn’t need to cruise over the Atlantic Ocean and find America, he could have remained in Europe yet then we may not be living in the United States of America. Christopher Columbus and numerous others human didn’t stop however kept on investigating since they are people. We as people have an instinctual nature to investigate and find. This is seen particularly in kids. At the point when little children conside r something to be as a glossy article, they explore it by getting it, believing it and possibly tasting it. As we develop, it is just vital that we as people proceed with their inquiry to find and investigate. On the off chance that the fervor and rush of investigation isn’t enough for you, there are additionally numerous advantages that NASA and space investigation contribute.      The first advantage and nearly the most evident is innovation. Getting into space isn’t simple and requires some investment, cash, and research. All together for the missions to be victories much innovation is utilized, which a great deal of the time likewise impacts the remainder of society. One straightforward model originated from the inquiry, â€Å"How do you dispose of overabundance heat when you're remaining under an open sky with truly nothing among you and the bursting fierceness of the Sun?† NASA researchers thought of the fluid cool piece of clothing which kept the space explorers cool and agreeable from head from to toe. This cooling framework was then in the long run received by firemen when managing hazardous high temperature materials, race care drivers, and officers in the desert. Another straightforward gadget utilized in about each house is the smoke alarm. The smoke alarm was first utilized and made for the Space Shuttle. These gadgets essentially distinguish smoke which can be brought about by flames and spares a huge number of lives every year. Obviously NASA’s most noticeable accomplishments are the ones in space, for example, the space transport and space stations, yet NASA has ended up into regular living on Earth.  ... ... think about the threats and still acknowledge the demands isn’t on the grounds that their insane or moronic, but since they are daring, shrewd, and chivalrous. The Columbia would improve tremor wellbeing, cleaner air, and keep on bettering human life. All the space travelers on the Columbia were researchers and performing errands from tumor development trials to worldwide environmental change that must be done in Space. In any case, even the groups of the space travelers said the wayfarers left Earth with "a eagerness to acknowledge hazard in the quest for information - information that may improve the personal satisfaction for all mankind." The nearest individuals to the space explorers, their families, who were harmed by the catastrophe the most additionally included, â€Å"the strong investigation of room must go on.†      NASA and space investigation will keep on going on and I accept the quality behind the program will likewise develop as more revelations are made. As people it is our inclination to investigate what's more that, a large number of advantages from sparing lives to regular day to day existence are credited to NASA. The conceivable outcomes of room investigation are just restricted by your creative mind and we are just in its beginning periods.

Customer Relationship block in Business Model Canvas

Customer Relationship block in Business Model Canvas CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIP BUILDING BLOCKThis building block dictates the nature of the relationships that an organization will develop with its various customer segments. A company could choose to communicate with its customers through people or automated means. The customer relationships that an organization opts for are based on the company’s business model and greatly impact the overall customer experience. The relationships are dependent on three main motivations that are explained below.Customer acquisitionCustomer acquisition is the process of persuading a customer to select your organization’s product over choices available in the market. Businesses usually spend a lot of resources evaluating the tradeoff between the cost of acquiring a customer and the value the customer provides to the company.A number of mediums and tactics are available to entrepreneurs today who are interested in acquiring customers for their business. These are elaborated on below.Content Marketing: for entrepreneurs with limited resources Content Marketing is a very appealing and useful alternative. Though a lot of organizations may opt for this medium, it has been proved extremely effective for those who have employed it intelligently.Search Engine Optimization: Content Marketing automatically means you have your name and information relevant to your brand and your company available online. The more people are exposed to it and share it, the higher your content will rank in search results, which is one of the most effective ways of getting your product noticed by your target customer.Email Marketing: the resulting traffic directed at an organization from content marketing and search engine optimization can give entrepreneurs access to a rich resource of potential customers. When customers subscribe to receive information and news regarding your product, you have managed to acquire a customer without having to invest in an extensive sales force.Copywriting: words have a powerful i mpact on the way your product will be positioned and perceived by the customer. Copywriters can play an instrumental role in ensuring the success of your brand positioning as well as attracting the right customers to your products.Conversion Rate Optimization: the more your company starts attracting customers, the stronger your chances are of acquiring them by making minor tweaks to your content and outlook.Social Media Marketing: despite the popularization of social media as a customer acquisition tool, it cannot be depended on exclusively to get word of your product out in the market. When used in collaboration with other tactics, however, social media can elevate your product significantly in your target customer segment’s estimation.Analytics: it is not just enough to mobilize word of your products through the media mentioned above. If companies do not use data gleaned from one or more of these resources and analyze it to better understand their customers, they are not taking full advantage of the investment they have made.Customer RetentionCustomer Retention refers to the long-term relationship a company establishes with its customers. The more repeat customers, a company has, the more it is assured of champions who will market its products and help it acquire additional customers.Below are some strategies businesses can use to retain their customers and form long-term relationships with them.Stand for Something: customers are more loyal to brands that they identify with or which they feel represent traits and characteristics that they would like to emulate. So it is imperative for a company to select what its brand stands for and communicate that to its customers.Utilize positive social proof: websites that provide customers with facts that show how the use of their product will improve their social standing are more likely to help the company retain customers in the long term.Invoke the inner ego: customers are automatically more inclined towards a pr oduct based on how much it reflects qualities that they feel exist in themselves. This is called implicit egotism and can be a very effective weapon. Companies only need to know their customers inside out, have complete understanding of the language they speak, their wants, needs and desires to be able connect with them and show them how the company and its products are an extension of themselves.Use the words they love to hear: certain words have a deep impact on the buying behavior of customers, and if the product fulfills the promise of these words, customer retention becomes easier.Reduce pain points and frictions: if you address a pain point for your customer or resolve a problem for him, you will be retaining him for much longer.Realize that budget is negligible: most companies balk at giving back to customers without realizing that giving them a discount, even if it is a small one, will wow the customer and keep him coming back for more.Utilize surprise reciprocity: surprisin g the customer by providing them with a boon like a discount or a free add-on, unexpectedly, will stay with the customer longer.Make it personal: by providing a personal service to the customers, you increase your chances of creating a repeat customer.Speed is secondary to the quality: often, companies make the mistake of picking speed of service over quality, thinking customers would appreciate the tradeoff. However, studies have shown that customers are more likely to come back if importance is given to quality.Customers enjoy businesses who know them: the more time an employee spends with the customer, getting to know them and therefore providing a level of personalization, the more likely it is to reassure the customer that the company truly knows him and therefore keep pulling him back to the brand.Choose the right platform: it is important to know what communication channel is preferred by customers and to utilize this channel to the fullest to keep their presence ensured in t he customer’s psyche.Make it a communal effort: all elements of the organization must be fully engaged and kept in the loop when it comes to servicing a customer. The aggregated effect will greatly improve the overall experience.Get people started: loyalty programs are more likely to be used if companies get past the customer’s initial resistance and ensures that customers are automatically signed up for such schemes. Once the ball is rolling, customers are more likely to stay the course.Get ideal customers to be VIP’s: humans are competitive by nature and studies have backed this observation up by showing people appreciate being assigned to a particular customer class if there is a class below them in the program.Label your customers: customers are more likely to keep coming back if associating with their brand puts a label on them.Boosting sales (upselling)Companies are forever focused on increasing their sales and often use a strategy called upselling which requires represe ntatives to convince the customer to buy more of their company’s products. By using a combination of linguistics, packaging products and lowering their overall price and selling dependent products, companies ensure that a customer buys as much of their products as possible.In fact, companies often provide incentive programs that reward employees who manage to boost their sales through the technique of upselling and ask others to emulate the techniques and tactics these employees use. However, such incentive programs are kept strictly under wraps because if a customer gets to know about them, it may break the tenuous relationship of trust between the customer and the customer representative.Typical Upsells that you may have experienced can be;Asking a customer if he would like to add a drink or fries to his order at a Fast food restaurant.Convincing a customer who is getting his laptop fixed that he should get more RAM, or a bigger hard drive installed.Suggesting to a customer gett ing their phone fixed that they should upgrade to a newer version of the handset.Typically there are two techniques that successful upsellers often utilize;Successful upsellers are often researchers and observers who get to know the customer profile, particularly focusing on their economic, demographic, preferences and social aspirations. This helps the upseller to customize his pitch to the taste of the customer.Another technique common among upsellers is the use of fear. By letting the customer know that the product may go out of stock due to demand or getting them to buy after sales services or warranties for expensive items by letting on that the product is sensitive and needs to be handled by expert hands. CATEGORIES OF CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIPSCustomer relationships can be divided into six main categories that may overlap for an organization relating to different customer segments.Category 1: Personal assistanceThis type of customer relationship is characterized by the human touc h. Customers have the opportunity to interact with a sales representative while they are making their purchase decision or with a customer services representative for after sales services.Category 2: Dedicated personal assistanceThis type of relationship takes personal assistance to the next level by assigning dedicated customer care representatives to the customer. This kind of relationship takes some time and finesse to develop and is characterized by the representative knowing traits of the customer that he uses to customize the customer experience with the company. Banks will often assign a single point of contact to important customers with long-standing relationship with the bank and a high net worth.Category 3: Self-serviceThe Do It Yourself model has been getting more and more popular as organizations seek cost cutting measures that will reflect in the prices given to customers. In this kind of relationship, the company provides all the tools a customer needs to service them selves.Category 4: Automated servicesAutomated services are the next level of self-service by providing machinery and processes that increase the convenience for customers to perform services themselves. These kinds of services are usually much more customized and use a customer’s online and buying behavior to create a profile that is then used to provide suggestions to the customer to enhance his/ her shopping experience. Hence, automated services in many ways can be likened to personal assistance because of the customization that goes into the experience.Category 5: CommunitiesIn today’s social media driven environment, communities are a wonderful way for companies to understand their consumers, get insights into their habits, perspectives and create a platform in which customers can get together and share knowledge and experiences. In this way, not only does the company form a personal relationship with its customers, but these bonds are strengthened by the additional relatio nships customers form with one another. Glaxo SmithKline is an example of this kind of a relationship. When the company launched a new weight-loss drug, it gave customers a platform to form communities that helped it understand the problems that overweight people face as well as.Category 6: Co-creationCompanies are increasingly changing the nature of the customer relationship by involving them in the design and even creation of the end product. This gives customers greater ownership over the product and service and often results in the creation of product or brand champions in the market. Amazon encourages customers to publish their book reviews on the web-site so readers can find people with similar tastes and evaluate what they thought of particular books before making purchase decisions. YouTube depends entirely on its customers to create the content that enables the website to boast being the largest video sharing website in the world.CASE STUDY © Entrepreneurial Insights based on the concept of Alex OsterwalderThis post explains the Customer Relationships Building Block, that represents the fourth building block in the Business Model Canvas. The article starts with explaining the 1) customer relationship building block. We then look at 2) categories of customer relationships and a 3) case study.CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIP BUILDING BLOCKThis building block dictates the nature of the relationships that an organization will develop with its various customer segments. A company could choose to communicate with its customers through people or automated means. The customer relationships that an organization opts for are based on the company’s business model and greatly impact the overall customer experience. The relationships are dependent on three main motivations that are explained below.Customer acquisitionCustomer acquisition is the process of persuading a customer to select your organization’s product over choices available i n the market. Businesses usually spend a lot of resources evaluating the tradeoff between the cost of acquiring a customer and the value the customer provides to the company.A number of mediums and tactics are available to entrepreneurs today who are interested in acquiring customers for their business. These are elaborated on below.Content Marketing: for entrepreneurs with limited resources Content Marketing is a very appealing and useful alternative. Though a lot of organizations may opt for this medium, it has been proved extremely effective for those who have employed it intelligently.Search Engine Optimization: Content Marketing automatically means you have your name and information relevant to your brand and your company available online. The more people are exposed to it and share it, the higher your content will rank in search results, which is one of the most effective ways of getting your product noticed by your target customer.Email Marketing: the resulting traffic direct ed at an organization from content marketing and search engine optimization can give entrepreneurs access to a rich resource of potential customers. When customers subscribe to receive information and news regarding your product, you have managed to acquire a customer without having to invest in an extensive sales force.Copywriting: words have a powerful impact on the way your product will be positioned and perceived by the customer. Copywriters can play an instrumental role in ensuring the success of your brand positioning as well as attracting the right customers to your products.Conversion Rate Optimization: the more your company starts attracting customers, the stronger your chances are of acquiring them by making minor tweaks to your content and outlook.Social Media Marketing: despite the popularization of social media as a customer acquisition tool, it cannot be depended on exclusively to get word of your product out in the market. When used in collaboration with other tactics , however, social media can elevate your product significantly in your target customer segment’s estimation.Analytics: it is not just enough to mobilize word of your products through the media mentioned above. If companies do not use data gleaned from one or more of these resources and analyze it to better understand their customers, they are not taking full advantage of the investment they have made.Customer RetentionCustomer Retention refers to the long-term relationship a company establishes with its customers. The more repeat customers, a company has, the more it is assured of champions who will market its products and help it acquire additional customers.Below are some strategies businesses can use to retain their customers and form long-term relationships with them.Stand for Something: customers are more loyal to brands that they identify with or which they feel represent traits and characteristics that they would like to emulate. So it is imperative for a company to select what its brand stands for and communicate that to its customers.Utilize positive social proof: websites that provide customers with facts that show how the use of their product will improve their social standing are more likely to help the company retain customers in the long term.Invoke the inner ego: customers are automatically more inclined towards a product based on how much it reflects qualities that they feel exist in themselves. This is called implicit egotism and can be a very effective weapon. Companies only need to know their customers inside out, have complete understanding of the language they speak, their wants, needs and desires to be able connect with them and show them how the company and its products are an extension of themselves.Use the words they love to hear: certain words have a deep impact on the buying behavior of customers, and if the product fulfills the promise of these words, customer retention becomes easier.Reduce pain points and frictions: if you addre ss a pain point for your customer or resolve a problem for him, you will be retaining him for much longer.Realize that budget is negligible: most companies balk at giving back to customers without realizing that giving them a discount, even if it is a small one, will wow the customer and keep him coming back for more.Utilize surprise reciprocity: surprising the customer by providing them with a boon like a discount or a free add-on, unexpectedly, will stay with the customer longer.Make it personal: by providing a personal service to the customers, you increase your chances of creating a repeat customer.Speed is secondary to the quality: often, companies make the mistake of picking speed of service over quality, thinking customers would appreciate the tradeoff. However, studies have shown that customers are more likely to come back if importance is given to quality.Customers enjoy businesses who know them: the more time an employee spends with the customer, getting to know them and t herefore providing a level of personalization, the more likely it is to reassure the customer that the company truly knows him and therefore keep pulling him back to the brand.Choose the right platform: it is important to know what communication channel is preferred by customers and to utilize this channel to the fullest to keep their presence ensured in the customer’s psyche.Make it a communal effort: all elements of the organization must be fully engaged and kept in the loop when it comes to servicing a customer. The aggregated effect will greatly improve the overall experience.Get people started: loyalty programs are more likely to be used if companies get past the customer’s initial resistance and ensures that customers are automatically signed up for such schemes. Once the ball is rolling, customers are more likely to stay the course.Get ideal customers to be VIP’s: humans are competitive by nature and studies have backed this observation up by showing people appreciate b eing assigned to a particular customer class if there is a class below them in the program.Label your customers: customers are more likely to keep coming back if associating with their brand puts a label on them.Boosting sales (upselling)Companies are forever focused on increasing their sales and often use a strategy called upselling which requires representatives to convince the customer to buy more of their company’s products. By using a combination of linguistics, packaging products and lowering their overall price and selling dependent products, companies ensure that a customer buys as much of their products as possible.In fact, companies often provide incentive programs that reward employees who manage to boost their sales through the technique of upselling and ask others to emulate the techniques and tactics these employees use. However, such incentive programs are kept strictly under wraps because if a customer gets to know about them, it may break the tenuous relationship of trust between the customer and the customer representative.Typical Upsells that you may have experienced can be;Asking a customer if he would like to add a drink or fries to his order at a Fast food restaurant.Convincing a customer who is getting his laptop fixed that he should get more RAM, or a bigger hard drive installed.Suggesting to a customer getting their phone fixed that they should upgrade to a newer version of the handset.Typically there are two techniques that successful upsellers often utilize;Successful upsellers are often researchers and observers who get to know the customer profile, particularly focusing on their economic, demographic, preferences and social aspirations. This helps the upseller to customize his pitch to the taste of the customer.Another technique common among upsellers is the use of fear. By letting the customer know that the product may go out of stock due to demand or getting them to buy after sales services or warranties for expensive items by letting on that the product is sensitive and needs to be handled by expert hands. CATEGORIES OF CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIPSCustomer relationships can be divided into six main categories that may overlap for an organization relating to different customer segments.Category 1: Personal assistanceThis type of customer relationship is characterized by the human touch. Customers have the opportunity to interact with a sales representative while they are making their purchase decision or with a customer services representative for after sales services.Category 2: Dedicated personal assistanceThis type of relationship takes personal assistance to the next level by assigning dedicated customer care representatives to the customer. This kind of relationship takes some time and finesse to develop and is characterized by the representative knowing traits of the customer that he uses to customize the customer experience with the company. Banks will often assign a single point of contact to important customers with long-standing relationship with the bank and a high net worth.Category 3: Self-serviceThe Do It Yourself model has been getting more and more popular as organizations seek cost cutting measures that will reflect in the prices given to customers. In this kind of relationship, the company provides all the tools a customer needs to service themselves.Category 4: Automated servicesAutomated services are the next level of self-service by providing machinery and processes that increase the convenience for customers to perform services themselves. These kinds of services are usually much more customized and use a customer’s online and buying behavior to create a profile that is then used to provide suggestions to the customer to enhance his/ her shopping experience. Hence, automated services in many ways can be likened to personal assistance because of the customization that goes into the experience.Category 5: CommunitiesIn today’s social media driven environment, commu nities are a wonderful way for companies to understand their consumers, get insights into their habits, perspectives and create a platform in which customers can get together and share knowledge and experiences. In this way, not only does the company form a personal relationship with its customers, but these bonds are strengthened by the additional relationships customers form with one another. Glaxo SmithKline is an example of this kind of a relationship. When the company launched a new weight-loss drug, it gave customers a platform to form communities that helped it understand the problems that overweight people face as well as.Category 6: Co-creationCompanies are increasingly changing the nature of the customer relationship by involving them in the design and even creation of the end product. This gives customers greater ownership over the product and service and often results in the creation of product or brand champions in the market. Amazon encourages customers to publish thei r book reviews on the web-site so readers can find people with similar tastes and evaluate what they thought of particular books before making purchase decisions. YouTube depends entirely on its customers to create the content that enables the website to boast being the largest video sharing website in the world.CASE STUDYStarbucksStarbucks focuses on creating a long-term relationship with its customers and has largely been successful in this endeavor. By making itself so widely available to its consumers through its unique atmosphere that is uniform across outlets, it assures customers of the same wonderful experience regardless of where they are getting their coffee. Hence, customers have completely integrated Starbucks into their lives. In addition, Starbucks has also created mobile apps and loyalty apps that ensure that customers keep coming back more by providing them with surprise reciprocity and spending on them.Google vs. Facebook in Customer RelationshipsGoogle and Facebook have scores of customers across the globe and are therefore not dependent on any one segment to keep their business going. This means that both companies are completely free to set their prices, which customers have to go along with because both companies hold the power in their hands. Both companies engage in the Do it Yourself relationship by creating self-serve auction based Ad products, making the companies “Price Deciders” rather than the more typical “Price Accepters”.Google has had no one customer segment that has accounted for more than 10% of its revenue, making it completely independent. Facebook earned 12% of its revenue in 2011 through Zynga, a provider of social game services and the maker of popular online games like Farmville, Texas Holdem, Chefville, etc. However, despite these revenues instead of Facebook being dependent on Zynga, Zynga is more dependent on Facebook for its revenues.

Racism in Society Essay example - 1802 Words

American Racism Society In Nathan McCall’s â€Å"Makes Me Wanna Holler,† he describes the difficulties he must face as a young black boy experiencing the slow, never-ending process of the integration of blacks and whites. Through this process, his autobiography serves as an excellent example of my theory on the formation and definition of racial identity; a theory which is based upon a combination of the claims which Stuart Hall and George Lipsitz present in their essays regarding racial identity. Therefore the definition I have concocted is one in which racial identity consists of an unstable historical process through which one comes to know themselves in relation to an outside group. In this paper I will present Hall and Lipsitz’s†¦show more content†¦Throughout his essay, Hall applies his ideas regarding identity to race and racism through the examples he presents. He describes instances that show how members of certain races come to relate themselves to their race t hrough the identity process he presents. The discovery of race, how people interpret one’s biological makeup, is also attributed to history and â€Å"the Other.† The form of racism, the system of providing disadvantages and advantages due to race, that Hall talks about is a definition which shows the way all of our behavior/conduct is pervaded by certain racist elements. He argues that â€Å"racism is a structure of discourse and representation that tries to expel the Other symbolically†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Hall, 11) Race is attributed to the mutual construction of one’s social position as seen by â€Å"the Other† and the individual’s position. In this respect, racism is relational because people rely on differentiation to â€Å"know who they are.† They must sustain the â€Å"Other† by recovering history to â€Å"expel the other symbolically.† (Hall, 11) In Lipsitz’s â€Å"The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: Racialized Social Democracy and the White Problem in American Studies,† he explores the political aspect of the history which is â€Å"recovered† in respect to race through a specific set of political policies. He argues that through the historical process of political institution and various explicit racist policies since World War II, whitesShow MoreRelatedRacism And Racism In Society1702 Words   |  7 PagesI am not a racist person, but it does exist. It is all over our country. Racism is left in the open anymore, but people still have racist thoughts against people that live in America. Racism was not a big problem during the 1940s, when people were racist against the people around them. But now, things have gotten much better. The community, town government is trying to stop such racial problems. Racial problems and judgements not really exist in our community openly, but some remains of raci alRead MoreRacism And Its Impact On Society779 Words   |  4 Pages Racism is a concept that has been around for years. It is something that has left its mark, and even scars on our society. It has lefts mark and scars on our businesses, schools, churches, communities, and even on relationships. Racism has cost both those of color and Whites their health, families, friends, livelihoods, and even their lives. Racism has many people greatly. People of color and people who are White experience the costs of racism each and every day. Racism is felt and experiencedRead MoreRacism And Its Impact On Society848 Words   |  4 PagesRacism is simply any form of discrimination towards skin color and a different race than your own. It can involve categorizing, insulting, abusing, and isolation. It is differing treatment of another human, but sadly it almost seems like it’s apart of human nature now. Racism can also be considered nature of competitiveness. We battle against each other because we simply want to outshine, and to group between ourselves to generate secure and solid support. Society classifies, not only with race,Read MoreRacism And Its Effects On Society1395 Words   |  6 Pages As humans have become more evolved within the years there has been different conflicts. Society still struggles with understanding and being able to resolve social issues like racism. Throughout history slavery has happened because of racism, and there are many people who have tried to bring it to an end, but that isn t t he case. This has always played a major role in our society and the social classes that people are put into. The classes are based on skin color, language, customs, their cultureRead MoreRacism : A Racist Society1762 Words   |  8 PagesFifty years ago America was a racist society that implemented segregation among people of color. Webster defines racism as, â€Å"a belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race.† Though it is seemingly clear that we live in a post-racist society, racism has evolved with modern America. Today, relationships between African Americans and Caucasians has improved since the forties and fifties, itRead MoreRacism And Its Effects On Society2540 Words   |  11 Pagesslavery is illegal, but that does not mean that people are not entitled to their own thinking. Racism is considered to be a belief that a certain race interior. This country w as built on that mentality, so in order to put an end to racism there needs to be a way to change people’s mind. Until then there will be people that believe that although blacks are free and have rights they are still inferior. Racism exist to this day because people who are racist raised their children to think the same way andRead MoreRacism And The Black Society Essay1881 Words   |  8 PagesWhite society has been dictating how minorities have been being represented in the media for quite some time now. By having this control this has allowed stereotypes and assumptions about minorities to commonly be shown in mainstream media. The consequences of doing such has only furthered the idea of racism and the overall response to whiteness in White society. By seeing how minorities are represented this has allowed White Americans to continue viewing them as invisible, or not accepting racismRead MoreRacism : A Society Of Harmony1792 Words   |  8 PagesWhen imagining a per fect society, the first thought that comes to a person’s mind is world peace. It is only a human belief that the world would be a better place without war and without sickness; it should be a society of harmony. There is a natural hope that despite any differences, the world can come together and overcome all obstacles. Though this goal may seem unrealistic, there are certain actions that can be taken that will bring mankind one step closer to peace. One major step to take isRead MoreRacism And Its Impact On Society Essay1866 Words   |  8 PagesRacism in America Literature is a compilation of written works, or art used to express opinions and emotions, it is used to describe anything from creative writing to more technical or scientific works. The term is most commonly used to refer to works of the creative imagination, including works of poetry, drama, fiction, and nonfiction (â€Å"Literature†). 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Feminist Theories Of Female Delinquency - 829 Words

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Business communications Free Essays

I will be explaining the legal and ethical Issues that relate to the use of business information. I personally think that legal and ethical issues are usually to do with something that involves people having to abide to a law, in most cases there will be a consequence for not abiding with the law. Most businesses have different information about people working for them, that’s when the Data Protection Act 1998 protects the Information held about people being misused. We will write a custom essay sample on Business communications or any similar topic only for you Order Now The information usually n the companys database must be: obtained fairly and lawfully, only to be used for the purposes stated during collection, adequate relevant and not excessive in relation to the intended use, accurate and up to date, not kept for longer than necessary, proceed in line with your rights and also protected from transfer to an area outside the European Economic Area unless adequate protection exists for that data in the area. There is also Freedom of Information Act 2000 (that came to effect in 2005) this Includes Right of access to information held by public authorities. This Is when a person request Information to public authority, the authority has to be informed in writing by the public authority whether it holds information of the description specified in the request, and if that is the case, to have that information communicated back to them The Computer Misuse Act 1990 it is a law that does not allow certain activities when using computers, this include: hacking into other people’s systems, misusing software or helping a person to gain access to protected files on someone’s else’s computer. There are also ethical Issues that are dealt with using organisational pollcles and codes of practise such as: use of email, internet and whistle blowing. These go under business ethics meaning moral principles concerning acceptable and unacceptable behaviour by business. Whistle blowing is also one of the ethical issues users can use and relate to. This is when an employee raises a concern about a business practise either to management within the company or to an outside organisation like the press. Operational Issues In relation to the use of business Information, Including security of Information, backups, health and safety, business continuance plans and costs. Organisations have to store and manage countless pieces of information with some being far more important than others. To make sure that information is managed appropriately, a number of policies and procedures have to be put in place, concerning; security of information, backups, health and safety, organisational pollcles and business continuance plans and cost. ailable as and when they need it, in order to make good business decisions. Information security management deals with maintaining the integrity and availability of organisational information and knowledge. Backups is also one of the operation issues as most businesses have developed programs constantly to try to minimise the risk of losing vital information stored on IT servers. This involves producing backups of information stored on the servers. Some compan ies back up constantly and some less frequently. Health and safety is also one of operational system and so are business continuance plans and costs. Business continuance plans are the steps that a company puts into place to make sure it is capable of surviving a worst-case scenario. M2 Legal issues are the laws raised by different companies so that users or customers will be aware of them. Ethical issues involve right and wrong or what is considered good, and what is considered evil in a society. Legal and ethical issues for businesses are usually different from business to business. How to cite Business communications, Papers

Not afraid by Eminem free essay sample

Eminems song, Not Afraid, is a song that inspires people to face their fears and to not be scared. He describes that he is done with making the wrong decisions and tired of being scared and hiding, hes ready to come out and face his fears. This song is very inspiring but interesting, because compared to all of his other songs such as, White America, or The Real Slim Shady. But it seems Eminem has a soft spot in his heart, no matter how hard or how tough he seems or makes himself out to be. Yes, his songs are very filthy because of his seemingly never ending arsenal of curse words that he has, (which makes sense, he was an A+ student in English), but while people look at the bad parts about him and how nasty he is,there are actually good parts to his songs and he actually has a message behind some of his songs, if not most of them. We will write a custom essay sample on Not afraid by Eminem or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page At times his songs can be meaningless and at times funny for some people, but the rest of them have a deep, heart filled message, and wether its hating the world, confessing some of the sins he has and wishes he could go back and erase his mistakes that he made, or expressing his sadness for rap wars going out of hand and people dying, there is more to Eminem than meets the eye. On another note, in the song, Not Afraid, the way he blends his words and says them at the right beat and at the right time, all points back to him using a iambic perimeter,(something that Shakespeare himself used while writing his pieces.). Shakespeare and Eminem are very alike believe it or not. The reason being because they both use their lyrics, creativity, and vast knowledge of the English language and sounds. Yes, Shakespeare himself is old and was different compared to Eminem but the fact of the matter is, Eminem has the same tone as Shakespeare did. My overall review of this song is a 4 star rating b ecause of his message, his tone, his lyrics, and his music, but also because he just uses to much bad language which I dont recommend for kids. His lyrics compared to other rappers today though are so much more thought out and more creative than anyone else could or ever will dream of. I hope he continues to make better music like this and continues to grow in the rap community and grows to go down as one of the greats

Association of Human papillomavirus and Breast Tumours The WritePass Journal

Association of Human papillomavirus and Breast Tumours Abstract: Association of Human papillomavirus and Breast Tumours Abstract:1.  Introduction:1.1.   Breast cancer:1.2.  Epidemiology:1.3 . Breast cancer Pathophysiology: 1.3.1  Ã‚  Aetiology:1.4.  Ã‚  Human papillomavirus and Cancer:1.4.1.   High risk and low risk HPV types:1.5.   Signs and Symptoms:1.4.   Different types of Breast cancers:1.4.   Diagnostic tests:1.5.   Aims and Objectives:2.  Methodology:2.1. Method and Materials:2.2. DNA purification method from tissue:3.  Ã‚  Result:3.1. DNA Extraction:3.2. PCR:4.  Health and Safety:5.   Ã‚  Ethical Issues:6.  Ã‚  Literature search:7.  Ã‚  Statistical analysis:8.  Ã‚  Treatment:8.1. Drugs:8.2. Trastuzumab: 9.  Cancer prevention:9.1. HPV Vaccines and Cervical Cancer:9.2. Breast Cancer Vaccine:10.  Discussion:References:Related Abstract: Cancer arises due to abnormal changes or mutations, in the genes responsible for regulating the growth of cells. Human papillomavirus (HPV) is considered the aetiological agent for many cancers including cervical cancer. HPV causes disruption and loss of some of the viral genes such as L1 and L2 genes and also increases the expression of the early genes. Several studies have addressed a relationship with HPV and breast cancer, as different HPVs have been identified. Most of the studies were successful in finding evidence in correlation of HPV 6, 11, 16 and 18 in invasive ductal breast carcinoma by using different techniques including DNA extraction and PCR, however other studies achieved low positivity or negative result. The aim of this study was to find out the association of HPV and Breast cancer. DNA was successfully extracted from archived breast tissue samples using DNA extraction method. This DNA sample could be amplified by using PCR to find HPV genome specifically targeting E1 gene. This is an ongoing work by the supervisors of the project to try and detect HPV genome in breast cancer, if successful a vaccine could be developed against various strains of HPVs worldwide and it could save many lives. Keywords:     Human papillomavirus, DNA Extraction, Breast cancer, Vaccine, PCR, 1.  Introduction: 1.1.   Breast cancer: Breast cancer is a malignant tumour that originates in the breast tissue, mainly from the inner lining of milk ducts or the lobules that supply milk to the ducts, cancers that initiates from ducts are called ductal carcinomas and those originating from lobules are called as lobular carcinomas. Cancer occurs due to abnormal changes or mutations, in the genes responsible for regulating the growth of cells (Sariego, 2010). The change in the genetic information causes a cell to no longer carry out its function properly (Almeida Barry, 2010). The following figures show the two types of cancers Benign and Malignant. (Almeida; Shela, 2010)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Figure: 2 malignant tumours Figure 1 and 2: above shows benign vs. malignant cancers. (a) A benign tumour is a mass of cells that remains within the tissue in which it originally developed. (b) The invasion of cancer cells into surrounding tissues is the hallmark of a malignant tumour. Malignant cells may break free from the tumour and travel to other locations in the body through the process of metastasis (Almeida Barry, 2010). 1.2.  Epidemiology: Breast cancer is one of the main health problems worldwide (Bao, 2011) and which resulted http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast_cancer cite_note-WHO_WCR-2 458,503 deaths in 2008 worldwide out of which 13.7%   are of cancer deaths in women and it is about 100 times more common in women than in men (Veto, et al., 2009). The table below shows how females are susceptible to breast cancer at different ages for example there is 1 in 8 risk of developing breast cancer in females in the U.K in lifetime. Table 1: Shows estimated risk of developing breast cancer by age, females, UK, 2008 UK, 2008    Adopted from: www.cancerresearch.uk http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/cancerstats/types/breast/riskfactors/ Date accessed: 20/01/11 The table 2 below shows that more deaths happens in females due to breast cancer than males as it can be seen from the table only 69 males died in 2008 in compare to 12,047 females. Table 2: Shows the number of deaths and mortality rates in the UK in 2008. Adopted from: www.cancerresearch.uk http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/cancerstats/types/breast/mortality/#age Date accessed: 20/01/11 The figure below shows the incidence and mortality rates from female breast cancer in EU countries. As it can be seen from the table Belgium has the highest rates of incidence in female breast cancer. Figure 1 above is a graph of incidence and mortality rates in EU. Adopted from: www.cancerresearch.uk http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/cancerstats/types/breast/incidence/ Date accessed: 20/01/11 1.3 . Breast cancer Pathophysiology: 1.3.1  Ã‚  Aetiology: Some of the suspected aetiological factors which influence the cases of breast cancer are family history, obesity, age, oral contraceptives and alcohol. Family history: A woman who has a family member with breast cancer increases double the risk of getting breast cancer in compare to a woman with no family history (Lancet, 2001). Obesity: obesity increases the risk of postmenopausal breast cancer by up to 30%, since levels of hormones rises with excess body fat such as oestrogen and insulin these are the common features of cancers. Age: older women are at higher risk.   Particularly women aged 50-69 are most at risk, predominantly those with a late menopause. Oral contraceptives: increases the risk by approximately a quarter but since people who uses are commonly younger women, therefore the risk is fairly low. Alcohol: drinking alcohol as less as one alcoholic drink each day increases the risk of breast cancer by around 12%. (Cancer Research U.K, 2008) Some other factors include: Lesions to  DNA  such as genetic mutations. There is link between mutations that can lead to  breast cancer and  oestrogen  exposure, found out by carrying out experiments. Another factor is when a body fails to carry out immune surveillance; it is a theory in which the immune system gets rid of malignant cells throughout ones life. Other factor is inherited defects in  DNA  repair  genes, such as BRCA1, BRCA2 and TP53 (Adams, et al., 2011). Figure 2 above shows the percentage of different genes with associated risk. Figure adopted from: Wooster and Webber, (2003) Date accessed: 12/04/11 Moreover according to many authors there is a potential link between the HPV and breast cancer. 1.4.  Ã‚  Human papillomavirus and Cancer: HPV genome is normally found in the cytoplasm of infected tissues however, the DNA of HPV types that cause cancer are integrated into the host genome. HPV causes disruption and loss of some of the viral genes for example (L1 and L2 genes) and also increases the expression of the early genes (Wang, 2007; Mera, 1997). Oncoproteins E5 interacts with MHC I and prevents its transport to the cell surface   therefore infected cells escapes the immune system consequently allowing the virus to establish persistent infections and thus progressing to cancer. E6 targets p53 for degradation and therefore prevents apoptosis of abnormal cells, whereas E7 inactivates Rb (retinoblastoma) function, which results in abnormal cell proliferation and disturbs the normal cell cycle regulation (Wang, 2007; WHO, 2006; Mera, 1997). P53 and Rb are tumour suppressor genes which stop tumours from developing (Mera, 1997). Incorporation of virus into host cell increases and sustains the growth of both virus and the host cell, thus resulting in the alteration of infected host cells into malignant cells (Mera, 1997; Wang, 2007) and ultimately invasive cancer. Figure 3 above shows different genes in HPV. Adopted from: Symptoms of HPV 2010 symptomsofhpv.net/113/hpv-16/ Date accessed: 07/04/11 Table 9 below shows the function of different genes within the HPV virus: Gene/Region Function E1/E2 Code for proteins which control the function of E6 and E7 genes. E4 Function largely unknown but may control virus release from cell. E5 Codes for a hydrophobic protein which enhances immortalisation of the cell. E6 Codes for proteins which inhibit negative regulators of the cell cycle .E6 products inhibit p53 which is a transcription factor for apoptosis (programmed cell death). E7 Codes for products which  Ã‚   bind to the retinoblastoma tumour suppressor  Ã‚   proteins thereby permitting the cell to progress through the cell cycle in the absence  Ã‚  Ã‚   of normal mitogenic signals. L1/L2 Code for  structural proteins  and formation of complete virus particles. LCR Necessary for normal virus replication and control of gene expression. Adopted from: Eurocytology eurocytology.eu/static/eurocytology/eng/cervical/LP1ContentMcontA1.html Date accessed: 19/03/11 The HPV (human papillomavirus) is a member of the papillomaviridae family and has a double stranded circular DNA genome (Wang, 2007). These viruses are small in size with 8kbp-long DNA genome and have no envelope (WHO, 2006). HPV genome contains early (E) and the late genes (L) which codes for early proteins (E1-E7), late proteins (L1 and L2) and a non coding long control region (LCR) (WHO, 2006; Mera, 1997; Govan, 2008). 1.4.1.   High risk and low risk HPV types: There are more than one hundred different HPV types that have been discovered (WHO, 2006) and these are divided into high risk and low risk types. HPV 16, 18, 31 and 45 are some high risk HPV types associated with most of the cancer, while HPV 6 and 11 are low risk non-oncogenic HPV types (Brown, et al., 2005; Govan, 2008). Table3: the following table shows some high risk, low risk and potentially risk HPVs. Classification HPV types High-risk 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59 Low-risk 82, 6, 11, 40, 42, 43, 44, 54, 61, 70 Potentially high –risk 26, 53 Source: Govan (2008) HPV 6 and 11 are linked with up to 90% genital warts (Von Krogh, 2011), nevertheless after the examination of 55 genital wart samples from Slovenia, using polymerase chain reaction (PCR), the authors concluded that HPV 6 and 11 genotypes were detected in 96.4% of genital warts patients (Potocnik, et al., 2007). 1.5.   Signs and Symptoms: Changes that could arise due to a breast cancer are: A change in the size or shape of a breast A lump or thickening in an area of the breast Dimpling of the skin A change in the shape of the nipple, particularly if it turns in, sinks into the breast or becomes irregular in shape A blood stained discharge from the nipple (Dixon, 2005; Breast cancer, 2008). Figure 3a: above shows the symptoms of breast cancer Source: Healthbase (2008) http://blog.healthbase.com/2008_09_01_archive.html Accessed date: 11/04/2011 Normal anatomy of the breast: Female breast anatomy The structure of female breast is mainly made up of fat and connective tissue, but also contains milk ducts, lymph nodes, blood vessels and structures known as lobes and lobules (Rosen, 2009). Figure 4 above shows normal anatomy of breast tissue. The above figure adopted from: Mayoclinic (2009) mayoclinic.com/health/breast-cancer-early-stage/BC00001 Date accessed: 8 April 2011. Lobules and ducts Every breast has 12 to 20 lobules that protrude from the nipple and holds small alveoli; the lobules are connected together by a network of thin ducts (Rosen, 2009). Figure 5 above shows different parts in the female breast The above figure adopted from: Mayoclinic (2009) mayoclinic.com/health/breast-cancer-early-stage/BC00001 Date accessed: 8 April 2011. Stromata Spaces around the lobules and ducts are filled with fatty tissue, ligaments and connective tissue (stromata). The size of the breast is determined by the amount of fat it contains, the breast tissue is also sensitive to cyclic changes in hormone levels (Rosen, 2009). Figure 6 above shows the position of stromata in female breast. The figure adopted from: Mayoclinic (2009). mayoclinic.com/health/breast-cancer-early-stage/BC00001 Date accessed: 8 April 2011. Muscles Breasts are muscle free tissues, muscles lie beneath the breasts separating them from the ribs (Rosen, 2009). The above figure adopted from: Mayoclinic (2009) mayoclinic.com/health/breast-cancer-early-stage/BC00001 Date accessed: 8 April 2011. Arteries and capillaries Blood supply all the essential nutrients and oxygen to the breast tissue through arteries, capillaries and small blood vessels (Rosen, 2009). Figure 8 above shows the position of capillaries and arteries in and around the breast. Figure adopted from: Mayoclinic, (2009) mayoclinic.com/health/breast-cancer-early-stage/BC00001 Date accessed: 8 April 2011. Lymph nodes and lymph ducts The lymphatic system contains blood vessels, lymph ducts and lymph nodes that helps fight infection, lymph nodes are present behind the breastbone, under the armpit and in other parts of the body engulfs harmful substances that are in the lymphatic system and safely get rid of them (Rosen, 2009; Mayoclinic, 2009). Figure 9 above shows the position of the lymph nodes and lymph ducts. The above figure adopted from: Mayoclinic, 2009 mayoclinic.com/health/breast-cancer-early-stage/BC00001 Date accessed: 8 April 2011. 1.4.   Different types of Breast cancers: There are different types of breast cancer for example ductal and lobular and it depends on the type of tissue that it is derived from. Table 3.1 below shows the list of different types of breast cancer: DCIS ductal carcinoma in situ LCIS lobular carcinoma in situ Invasive ductal breast cancer Invasive lobular breast cancer Inflammatory breast cancer Pagets disease Breast cancer in men The following figures show some of the main types of the cancer that begins in different areas of the breast for example the ducts, the lobules, or in some cases, the tissue in between. These figures also show the different types of breast cancer, including non-invasive, invasive, metastatic and recurrent breast cancers. a.   Ductal Carcinoma in situ (DCIS)   Range of Ductal Carcinoma in situ (DCIS) Figures: 10 and 11 above show normal breast with non–invasive ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) in an enlarged cross–section of the duct. Adopted from: Breast cancer (2008) breastcancer.org/symptoms/types/dcis/diagnosis.jsp Accessed date: 20/01/2011 Breast profile A B C D E F G Ducts Lobules Dilated section of duct to hold milk Nipple Fat Pectralis major muscle Chest wall/ rib cage Enlargement Ductal   cancer cells Normal lobular cells Basement membrane Lumen ( centre of duct) Table 4: shows the annotation of the above figures (Trentham-Dietz, et al., 2011) b.  Ã‚  Lobular Carcinoma in situ (LCIS Figure: 12 above shows normal breast with lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS) in an enlarged cross–section of the lobule. Adopted from: Breast cancer (2008) breastcancer.org/symptoms/types/ilc/tests/diagnosing.jsp Accessed date: 20/01/2011 Table 5 shows the annotation of the figure 12. Breast profile A B C D E F G Ducts Lobules Dilated section of duct to hold milk Nipple Fat Pectralis major muscle Chest wall/ rib cage Enlargement Normal Ductal cells Lobular cancer cells Basement membrane (Trentham-Dietz et al., 2011) a.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Invasive Ductal Carcinoma (IDC) Figure 13 above shows normal breast with invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC) in an enlarged cross–section of the duct. Adopted from: Breast cancer (2008) breastcancer.org/symptoms/types/ilc/tests/diagnosing.jsp Accessed date: 20/01/2011 Breast profile A B C D E F G Ducts Lobules Dilated section of duct to hold milk Nipple Fat Pectralis major muscle Chest wall/ rib cage Enlargement Normal duct cells ductal cancer cells breaking through the basement membrane   Basement membrane Table 6 shows the annotation of the figure 13. (Trentham-Dietz, et al., 2011) c.  Invasive Lobular Carcinoma (ILC) The above figure 14 shows normal breast with invasive lobular carcinoma (ILC) in an enlarged cross–section of the lobule. Adopted from: Breast cancer (2008) breastcancer.org/symptoms/types/ilc/tests/diagnosing.jsp Accessed date: 20/01/2011 Table 7 shows the annotation of the figure 14. Breast profile A B C D E F G Ducts Lobules Dilated section of duct to hold milk Nipple Fat Pectralis major muscle Chest wall/ rib cage Enlargement Normal cells Lobular cancer cells breaking through   the basement membrane Basement membrane (Trentham-Dietz, et al., 2011) Following are some examples of non-invasive cell growths:       d.  Non-Invasive Cell Growth Subtypes Solid Figure: 15 shows A cancer cells B basement membrane Adopted from: Breast cancer (2008) Accessed date: 20/01/2011 e.   Ã‚  Non-Invasive Cell Growth Subtypes Cribriform Figure: 16 above shows (A) cancer cells (B) basement membrane (C) lumen (centre of duct) Adopted from: Breast cancer (2008) Accessed date: 20/01/2011      f.  Non-Invasive Cell Growth Subtypes Papillary Figure: 17 above shows (A) cancer cells (B) basement membrane (C) lumen (centre of duct) Adopted from: Breast cancer (2008) Accessed date: 20/01/2011 g.  Ã‚  Non-Invasive Cell Growth Subtypes Comedo Figure: 18 above shows (A) living cancer cells (B) dying cancer cells (C) cell debris (necrosis) Adopted from: Breast cancer (2008) Accessed date: 20/01/2011 h. Vascular and Lymphatic Invasion Figure: 20 above shows normal breast with cancer cells invading the lymph channels and blood vessels in the breast tissue Adopted from: Breast cancer (2008) Accessed date: 20/01/2011 Table 8 shows the annotation of the above figure Breast profile A B C D E F Blood vessels Lymphatic channels Enlargement Normal duct cells cancer cells Basement membrane Lymphatic channel Blood vessel Breast tissue    1.4.   Diagnostic tests: Diagnosis of the breast cancer incorporates x-rays and screening tests and following are some of the important diagnostic tests that can be carried out before and after symptoms of breast cancer. Tests: Mammogram: A mammogram is the main screening test for asymptomatic patients who are over the age of 40 as well as for symptomatic adult patients (Bao, 2011).This test has a high sensitivity and specificity (Banks, 2004). If a mammogram does not find out an abnormality in patients with a clinically detected breast mass, additional imaging ultrasound and/or MRI should be carried out for further evaluation (Bao, 2011). Outcome:  Ã‚   The results are indicative of malignancy include: an irregular speculated mass, clustered micro-calcifications, and linear branching calcifications (Banks, 2004; breast cancer, 2010). The above figure 21 shows how mammography is carried out. Figure 21 adopted from: Breast cancer (2010) breastcancer.org/symptoms/testing/types/mammograms/ Accessed date: 02/04/2011 Breast Ultrasound: Ultrasound sends high-frequency sound waves through the breast and changes them into images on a screen. The ultrasound technician places a sound-emitting probe on the breast to carry out the test and there is no radiation involved (Matsuzaki, et al., 2010). Outcome:   The results are indicative of malignancy include: a hypo echoic mass, an irregular mass with internal calcifications, and enlarged auxiliary lymph nodes (breast cancer 2010; Moss, 1999). The above figure 22 shows how ultrasound is carried out. adopted from: Breast cancer (2010) breastcancer.org/symptoms/testing/types/ultrasound.jsp Accessed date: 02/04/2011 Breast MRI: MRI uses magnets and radio to produce detailed cross sectional images of the inside of the body. MRI screens high-risk women (breast cancer, 2010). The Sensitivity is 88% to 91%. Specificity is about 67% (Bluemke, 2004). Outcome: The results are indicative of malignancy include: a heterogeneously enhancing area and significant architectural distortion (Bluemke, 2004). The above figure 23 shows how MRI is carried out. adopted from: Breast cancer (2010) breastcancer.org/symptoms/testing/types/mri/ Accessed date: 02/04/2011 Biopsy: There are different types of biopsy techniques and among these techniques Fine needle aspiration (FNA) is the least invasive procedure and has high sensitivity and specificity  (Dayal, et al., 2011).   FNA is good for quick diagnosis of malignancy. Nonetheless, core biopsy is generally favoured, as it effectively differentiates between pre-invasive and invasive disease and is less chance getting inadequate sampling (Dayal, et al., 2011).   Outcome: Invasive ductal carcinoma is responsible for almost 80% of all breast cancers, cords of tumour cells among associated glandular formation, which make varying degrees of fibrotic response. Whereas invasive lobular carcinoma, small tumour cells that invade past the basement membrane of the lobules and form an Indian file between collagen bundles, usually appears as well-differentiated tumour cells that display tubule formation (Dayal, et al., 2011). 1.5.   Aims and Objectives: The aim of this project was to evaluate the association of Human papillomavirus (HPV) and breast cancer, additionally to collect the studies that support the presence of HPV DNA in patients with breast lesions worldwide. The archived samples diagnosed with breast carcinoma, will be used to extract the DNA by DNA Extraction method which could be further used for amplifying this DNA using PCR to detect HPV genome. This will ascertain the role of this virus in the pathogenesis of breast cancer and will also help the scientist for further investigation of this virus on biology of cancer. The following is the methodology of my project as how I carried out the experiment and extracted the DNA. 2.  Methodology: The methodology incorporates materials and method, health and safety, ethical issues and statistical analysis. 2.1. Method and Materials: The following table 9 shows the materials that have been used to extract the DNA. Materials Measurements Universal tubes 20 ml, 5ml Epindorf tube 1.5 ml, 500ul Gilson pipetts 2x 5- 50ul, 2x 0.1 – 2.5 ul,2x 100 – 1000ul, 1x 20 – 200ul Dry heat block ( incubator) Vortex Waterbath ( 37c) Centrifuge and microfuge 70% of alcohol to avoid contamination and spray bottle Ice box 10. Thermometer( to measure the temperature) 11. Spectrophotometer( OD reader) 12. Pipett   tips 13. Tissue and Cell LysisSolution  Ã‚  Ã‚   600ul (60ml) 14. Proteinase K 4ul ( 200ul) 15. RNase A 2ul (400ul) 16. Protein Precipitation Reagent 300ul (60ml) 17. Isopropanol 1ml (2ml) 18. Ethanol 70% 19. TE Buffer 35ul (8ml) 2.2. DNA purification method from tissue: The following is the method used to extract the DNA from the archived sample of breast tissue. Lysis of Formalin-Fixed, Paraffin-Embedded (FFPE) Tissue   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   i.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Placed 10-50 mg of 10- to 35- µm thick paraffin sections into an appropriate tube. If using a larger amount of tissue, adjust the reagent volumes accordingly.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ii.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Diluted 4  µl of â€Å"Proteinase K† into 600  µl of â€Å"Tissue and Cell Lysis Solution† for each sample, and mixed.   Ã‚  Ã‚   iii.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Added 600  µl of â€Å"Tissue and Cell Lysis Solution† containing the â€Å"Proteinase K† to the sample and mixed.   Ã‚  Ã‚   iv.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Incubated at 65 °C for 30 minutes; followed by a brief (10 seconds) vortex mix.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   v.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cooled the samples to 37 °C and added 2  µl of â€Å"RNase A† to the sample; mixed thoroughly.   Ã‚  Ã‚   vi.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Incubated at 37 °C for 30 minutes.    vii.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Placed the samples on ice for 3-5 minutes and then preceded with total DNA precipitation (below). Precipitation of Total DNA Added 300  µl of â€Å"MPC Protein Precipitation Reagent† to 600  µl of lysed sample and vortex vigorously for 10 seconds.   Ã‚  Ã‚   ix.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Pellet the debris by centrifugation at 4 °C for 10 minutes at ≠¥10,000 x g in a microcentrifuge. If the resultant pellet was clear, small, of loose, added an additional 25  µl of â€Å"MPC Protein Precipitation Reagent†, mixed, and pellet the debris again.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   x.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Transferred the supernatant to a clean microcentrifuge tube and discarded the pellet.   Ã‚  Ã‚   xi.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Added 500  µl of â€Å"isopropanol† to the recovered supernatant. Inverted the tube 30-40 times.    xii.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Pellet the DNA by centrifugation at 4 °C for 10 minutes in a microcentrifuge. Carefully poured off the â€Å"isopropanol† without dislodging the DNA pellet. Rinsed twice with 70% â€Å"ethanol†, being careful to not dislodge the pellet. Centrifuged briefly if the pellet was dislodged. Removed all of the residual ethanol with a pipet.    xv.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Resuspended the DNA in 35  µl of â€Å"TE Buffer†. Source: Epicentre Biotechnologies 3.  Ã‚  Result: DNA is extracted by a DNA histological processing using PCR and DNA extraction techniques. These are techniques used to extract, amplify and copy small segments of DNA. It is fast and inexpensive because significant amounts of a sample of DNA are necessary for molecular and genetic analyses (Mendizabal et al., 2008). 3.1. DNA Extraction: DNA was extracted by using DNA extraction protocol written in the method section. In the DNA extraction different solutions were used for example Proteinase K enzyme is used to digest protein and to remove protein contamination from DNA and to get to the pure DNA (Ebeling, et al., 1974). Also different machines incubators, vortex and centrifuge were used to break down cell walls. Following the DNA extraction PCR is used to amplify the DNA to find HPV genome. 3.2. PCR: Using the PCR to amplify a segment of DNA firstly the sample is heated so that the DNA denatures or divides into two pieces of single-stranded DNA. After that an enzyme called Taq polymerase synthesizes builds two new strands of DNA, using the original strands as templates. This process causes the duplication of the original DNA. Each of the molecules now carries one old and one new strand of DNA. After that each of these strands can be utilized to form two new copies, and the process continues in this manner. More than one billion exact copies of the original DNA segment is achieved by repeating the cycle of denaturing and synthesizing new DNA 35 or 40 times. This whole process of PCR is automated and can be done in just a few hours. A thermocycler machine directs this process and is programmed to change the temperature of the reaction every few minutes to cause DNA denaturing and synthesis. Source: Bruce Foukes lab Accessed date: 20/01/11. There are many different types of PCR for example conventional PCR assays using consensus primers and highly sensitive Real-Time PCR (Hedau, et al., 2011). Following are the result of the DNA extracted using a machine called nanoviewer.   Many concentration of the DNA extracted are within the good range which is 1.8 – 2.0. This indicates that the samples have not been contaminated with protein. The following table 10 shows the result of the DNA extracted: Breast Tissue sample number Concentration ng/ul Results 33 101.5 ng/ul A260/280 = 1.990 8 47.5 ng/ul A260/280 = 1.939 77 33 ng/ul A260/280 = 1.886 54 15.9 ng/ul A260/280 = 1.904 76 105.5 ng/ul A260/280 = 1.835 25 93.0 ng/ul A260/280 =   1.958 12 29.5 ng/ul A260/280 = 1.735 13 26.0 ng/ul A260/280 =   1.877 7 143.0 ng/ul A260/280 =   2.014 4.  Health and Safety: The health and safety procedures were followed according to the requirement of the laboratory for this project and a copy of COSSH assessment was given to the laboratory technical staff and to the project supervisor 5.   Ã‚  Ethical Issues: Approval of UK’S ethical committee regarding the usage of the breast tissue samples has already been granted to the project supervisor and hence there is no need of further ethical approval for this project. 6.  Ã‚  Literature search: To understand the scope of the HPV and breast cancer very well 15 abstracts have been submitted at the beginning to the project supervisor that were conducted by many journals and research papers. 7.  Ã‚  Statistical analysis: This project is a laboratory based and therefore does not require any statistical analysis to be carried out. 8.  Ã‚  Treatment: Breast cancer is treated with surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy and drugs. There are many drugs that are used to either treat or reduce the risk of breast cancer and following are some example of these drugs: 8.1. Drugs: Table11 below shows the list of drugs used for breast cancer treatment   Herceptin (chemical name: Trastuzumab ) Tamofen (chemical name: Tamoxifen) Arimidex (chemical name: anastrozole) Aromasin (chemical name: exemestane) Avastin (chemical name: bevacizumab) Carboplatin (brand name: Paraplatin) Cytoxan (chemical name: cyclophosphamide) Daunorubicin (brand names: Cerubidine, DaunoXome) Doxil (chemical name: doxorubicin) Ellence (chemical name: epirubicin) Thiotepa (brand name: Thioplex) Trelstar (chemical name: triptorelin) Tykerb (chemical name: lapatinib) Vincristine (brand names: Oncovin, Vincasar PES, Vincrex) Xeloda (chemical name: capecitabine) Some of the drugs that are used are explained below. Tamoxifen: is a drug that uses SERMs (selective oestrogen receptor modulator) that attaches to the oestrogen receptors in breast cells and blocks the effects of oestrogen (Lacroix, et al., 2010). Uses: to treat men and both pre-menopausal and post-menopausal women, typically is used to: shrink large, hormone-receptor-positive breast cancers before surgery reduce breast cancer risk in undiagnosed women at higher-than-average risk of developing breast cancer However Tamoxifen is very cost effective (Noah-Vanhoucke, et al., 2011) Side effects: irregular menstrual cycles vaginal discharge or bleeding depression endometrial cancer 8.2. Trastuzumab: is a drug that uses HER2 (human epidermal receptor 2) inhibitors that works against HER2-positive breast cancers by blocking the ability of the cancer cells to receive chemical signals that tell the cells to grow. Uses: treat metastatic, HER2-positive breast cancer (Barok, et al., 2011) shrink large, advanced-stage, HER2-positive cancers before surgery Side effects: diarrhea anemia abdominal pain 9.  Cancer prevention: 9.1. HPV Vaccines and Cervical Cancer: Cervical cancer and sexual behaviour of population are directly proportional to each other, recent study shows that in the U.K HPV prevalence and possession increased consistently with increasing numbers of lifetime sexual partners, regular partners, and new partners in the last 5 years (Almonte, 2011). The two prophylactic vaccines Cervarix and Gardasil consist of virus-like particles (VLPS), these are recombinant viral capsids made by expressing HPV 16 and 18 L1 proteins in insect cells through the baculovirous (cervarix) or HPV 6, 11, 16 and 18 L1 proteins in yeast cells (Gardasil) (Kahn 2005; Wang 2007; Kirnbauer et al., 1993). The virus-like particles (VLPS) contains no viral DNA and therefore would not in any case cause an infection or cervical cancer in recipients (Wang, 2007). Cervarix: GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) produces cervarix vaccine; it is a bivalent containing HPV 16 and 18 L1 virus-like particle vaccines that works against HPV 16 and 18 infections and cervical cancer (Bayas et al. 2008; Govan 2008). A phase II study illustrated that Cervarix was 91.6% efficacious against occasional infections and 100% effective against persistent infection (Harper et al. 2004). Cervarix is made up of an ASO4 adjuvant which contains aluminium hydroxide and 3-O-deacylated monophosporyl lipid (MPL), ASO4 helps improve the immune system (Bayas et al., 2008). Gardasil: Gardasil is developed by Merck and Co; it is a quadrivalent vaccine containing HPV 6, 11, 16 and 18 virus-like particles (Adams, et al., 2007; FDA, 2006). A phase II efficacy study of Gardasil results demonstrated that the vaccine has 90% efficacy in preventing incident HPV infection and cervaical cancer (Viller, et al., 2005). In June 2006 Gardasil was licensed by the FDA for use in young and adult females between the ages of 9 to 26 for the prevention of cervical cancer, genital warts and precancerous lesions (FDA, 2006), it was also approved in September 2008 for the prevention of vaginal and vulvar cancers caused by HPV 16 and 18 (FDA, 2008). Both of the above vaccines are given in a series of three 0.5ml immunisations over a time period of six months prior to a young person becomes sexually active (Long III, et al., 2007; WHO, 2007). Figure 24 shows how the HPV DNA is detected in cervical cancer. The above figure adopted from: Global Link (2008) Date accessed 07/04/11 9.2. Breast Cancer Vaccine: Vaccine has been developed firstly against cervical cancer and now the scientists are trying to develop a vaccine against breast cancer, however   scientists are trying to develop a vaccine which could be useful against all the different strains of HPV such as 16, 18, 33 worldwide (Armstrong, 2010). Prognosis: Table 14 shows the five year survival rates for colorectal and breast cancer. (Howlader, et al., 2011). There is only 23% survival rate for distant spread in breast cancer this shows that there is a need for more research to develop a vaccine against different strains of breast cancers and to treat these cancers affectively and avoid so many deaths. 10.  Discussion: Breast cancer is a malignant tumour that starts from cells of the breast. Cancer occurs due to mutations in the genes responsible for controlling the growth of cells thus cells are unable to function properly (Sariego, 2010). Human papillomavirus (HPV) is considered as an aetiological agent for many cancers such as cervical cancer, breast cancer etc. High risk HPV types causes cancer by integrating into the host genome and causes disruption and loss of some of the viral genes such as L1 and L2 genes and also increases the expression of the early genes (Wang, 2007; Mera, 1997). The aim of the research was to find out the association of HPV with breast cancer involving DNA extracted from archived breast tissue samples using DNA extraction method. This DNA sample could be amplified using PCR to find HPV genome specifically targeting E1 gene. This is conjunction with other studies in which samples were amplified using consensus primers CpI CpIIG and targeted the E1 gene in a region conserved for 99% of most common HPV subtypes (Mendizabal, et al., 2008). Given that the tissue samples were not fresh but were paraffin embedded which are not as good as fresh tissue samples because formalin fixation could denature the tissue during sectioning and also the DNA extracted from FFPE (formalin fixed paraffin embedded) tissues are usually at low concentration and disjointed (Shi, et   al., 2006). Additionally the experiment was carried out very successfully because most of the results that have been obtained were between the ranges of 1.8 to 2.0, which are regarded as pure DNA sample and therefore contains no protein contamination. A positive and negative control should be carried out while amplifying the DNA because a positive control makes sure the technique is working satisfactorily by using a reacting material relatively similar to the test material and negative control tests the specificity of the reaction and ensures there are no false positives (Mendizabal, et al., 2008). Although good results have been achieved however there were some variations in the purity of DNA extracted from the breast tissue samples and that depends on many different factors such as some tissue samples were darker in colour than normal which suggests the samples were not as fresh therefore it gave a lower result than the normal range of 1.8 to 2.0. Additionally the low results also depended on the way the whole experiment was carried out, there had been some mistakes in adding or mixing different solutions and mistakes were constantly recorded in the lab book therefore the same mistakes were not repeated again. Moreover many different techniques have been learnt from this project including the usage of centrifuge, vortex, incubator and nanoviewer. Carrying out this project has provided a full understanding on how to engage in the practical work which is beneficial in future laboratory projects, this is an ongoing work by the supervisors of the project to try and identify the association between the HPV and the breast cancer, if successful then a broader vaccine could be developed against all different strains of HPVs such as HPV16, 18 worldwide and   to cure not only breast cancer but also many different types of cancers such as, cervical cancer, head and neck Squamous cell carcinoma, genital warts etc. This will reduce the amount of vaccination given to each patient and also it will have tremendous effect on the quality of life and will solve many problems and save many lives. Furthermore many studies have been carried out to find out the presence of HPV in breast tissue. Some were successful by getting 86.21% positivity of HPV infection in breast cancer (de Villers et al., 2005) this was in conjunction with other studies that have been successful in obtaining high positive result (Hening, et al., 1999; Gumus, et al., 2006; Kan, et al., 2006, Li, et al., 2002). Additionally according to a largest investigation on breast carcinoma specifically analysing mammoplasty and fibroadenoma specimens as a control group the authors were able to detect HPV DNA in 24.5% of the breast carcinomas but were unable to detect any in benign breast specimens (Damin, et al., 2004). However other authors have either achieved low positivity (Kroupis, et al., 2006; Tsai, et al., 2005) or HPV was totally absent ( Lindel, et   al., 2007; Gopalkrishna, et al., 1996). Therefore there are two different views on the association of HPV with breast cancer as it has been indicated by the above studies, which is normal because scientists can have different opinions sometimes. 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