Investing in Futures and Options Essay

INTRODUCTION Of late, investors who are in the stock and commodity are focusing their attention towards risk management especially due to high volatility nature. Since these volatility movements are uncertain, it has become foremost cause of vagueness for such investors. Since the globalization of trade and free trade between major countries has become the order of the day, all most all the investors have to be under mercy of the exchange rate fluctuations which results in volatility   .The notion that exchange rates , profitability and other factors   influence a firm’s value and therefore the price of its stock is widely held by financial analyst ,economists and corporate managers . The liberalization of economic policies and investment policies due to world trade organization’s (WTO) free flow of investments and trade between member countries and bilateral free trade agreements between countries have augmented internationalization of economic activity and exceptional era of world wide currency and interest rates instability. To counter these financial risks, new pioneering concept commodity and stock market hedging techniques have nurtured at a rapid speed. The main feature of the using derivatives through hedging is to have control over the financial risk and minimizing the effect of uncertain cash flows. Financial institutions have come to rescue to these corporations who have exposure to financial risk with the range of products to assist in risk management. By far the most significant event in finance during the past decade has been the extraordinary development and expansion of financial derivatives. These instruments enhance the ability to differentiate risk and allocate it to the investors most able and   willing to take it – a process that has undoubtedly improved national productivity growth and standards of living .’ Allen Green Span, Chairman, Board of Governors of the US Federal Reserve System. The structural advantage of derivatives i.e. leverage or gearing   makes them suitable for managing risk can also result in the generation of leveraged profits or in the event of adverse market movement , a significant losses. The main advantage of gearing is that the buyer or seller need only to cough up a small proportion of total price at the time of deal is executed. It may be 1% and 8% depending upon the volatility of the underlying commodity or instrument. In the case of exchange traded transactions, this deposit is recognized as â€Å"initial margin† and is expected to reflect the amount by which the price of a contract may vary in one day’s trading. At the day end, all contracts will be valued and if the price has been found to move against the position, the losing party will have to pay further â€Å"variation margin† calls. In contrary, if the price movement is positive, credit will be given to the party .It is this element of gearing that provides the opportunity to make large gains or losses. Prudent handling of this leverage will result in considerable profit maximization and if it handled inexpertly, may generate losses .In some cases , these losses though high but they are few in number when measured against volume of business and number of participants in derivative business .The contributory factors for sustaining loss includes excessive position taking ( in relation to capital) , fraudulent activity , unexpected market moves, ineffective risk management, insufficient product understanding and inadequacies in corporate policy governing their use. What is a derivative? Derivative is a mathematical word which refers to a variable, which has been derived from another variable and they have no values of their own. Derivatives derive their value from the value of some other asset, which is referred as the underlying. For instance, a derivative of the shares of AT & T Corporation (underlying), will derive its value from the share price (value) of AT & T Corporation. Likewise, a derivative contract on wheat depends upon the price of wheat. An agreement or an option to buy or sell the underlying asset of the derivative up to a certain time in the future at a predetermined price i.e. the exercise price by way of special contract is known as derivative contract. The contract also has a flat expiry period mostly in the range of 3 to 12 months from the date of origination of the contract. The price of the underlying asset and the expiry period of the contract determine the value of the contract. Financial derivatives comprises of underlying financial asset like currency, debt instruments, equity shares, share price index etc.Exchange-traded derivatives are derivative contracts that has been standardized and traded on the stock exchanges. Over-the –counter derivatives is one which has been customized as per the requirements of the user by negotiating with the other party involved. Some of the common forms of derivatives are Futures, Forwards and Options. Futures: Futures are the derivative contracts that give the holder the chance to buy or sell the underlying asset at a pre-specified price some time in the near future and usually thy come with standardized form like contract size, fixed expiry time and price. The future market is one where continues auction market and exchanges presenting the recent information about the supply and demand as regards to individual commodities or financial instruments like stocks . In other words, future market is one where buyers and sellers of variety of commodities, financial instruments get together to trade. The main aim of the future market is to manage price risk. The future price risk is averted by buying or selling futures contract, with a price level arrived at now, for items to be delivered in future. This is achieved by hedging which helps to shield against the risk of an adverse price change in the near future or use of futures to lock in an acceptable margin between their purchase and their selling price. In futures, bankers, farmers, traders, manufacturers will arrange for the purchase or sale of a futures contract. In future market, commodities are broken down into five categories namely agriculture, metallurgical, interest bearingassets, jndexes and foreign currency. Agricultural futures market includes oats, corn , wheat , soybeans , soy meal ,soyoil,sunflower oil ,cattles , live hogs   and pork bellies, lumber , plywood ,cotton, coffee, cocoa, rice, orange juice and sugar. For every one of these commodities, different contract months are available and it depends upon the harvest cycle. More aggressively traded commodities usually have more contract months available and a new type of contract is available almost every month to meet the growing institutional and corporate market. Futures on Metallurgical Products: Petroleum products and metals is being covered under this group and it includes platinum, gold, silver, palladium, copper, gasoline, crude oil, propane and heating oil. Every month a new type of contract emerges to cater the needs of ever increasing institutional and corporate market. Assets which bears interest: This has its origin during 1975 and products in these categories include treasury bonds, Treasury Bills, Municipal Bonds, Treasury Notes and Eurodollar deposits. It is also possible to trade contracts with the same maturity but different expected interest rate differentials. Futures on Indexes: Now futures are available on most chief indexes such as New York Stock Exchange Composite, S&P 500, New York Stock Exchange Utility index, Russell 2000, Commodity Research Bureau (CRB), S&P 400 Midcap, FT-Se 100 Index (London) and Value line. These stock index features are settled in cash and there is no delivery of goods is involved in this method. A trader has to settle his positions by buying or selling an offsetting position or in cash at expiration. Foreign Currency Futures: During the post war period, the exchange rates and interest rates were stable and the mechanism of fixed exchange rates of the Bretton Woods era enabled the corporations to know in advance their foreign exchange liabilities for their imports. But the collapse of Bretton Woods’s system after the war resulted in the introduction of general floating exchange rates replacing the earlier fixed system. The introduction of floating exchange rates have resulted in large unexpected movements in exchange rates that too in unforeseen directions and magnitudes which affected interest rate movements as the monetary establishment tried to influence the exchange rates by movements in interest rates. It is to be noted that the forward market in currencies is much bigger than the foreign exchange futures market. Further, there are cross currency futures that are being traded and these includes Deutsch mark / yen, Deutsch mark / French franc. Forwards & Options: Forward is another form of a derivative contract but tailored to the needs of the user in terms of expiry date, contract size, and price. These contracts confer the holder the option to buy or sell the under lying at a pre-determined price some time in the future .Call option is one where the buyer has given his option to buy the underlying at the near future .Where as an option to sell the underlying at a specified price in the future is called as Put Option. As regards to the option contract, the buyer is not obliged to exercise the option contract. Generally, options can be traded on the stock exchange or on the OTC. In option, the participants may assume a position in an underlying futures contract at a certain price which is known as exercise or strike price within a particular period of time. The price or premium of the option is determined through action market trading. Swaps: Swaps contract was introduced in 1981 and can be considered as one of the latest financial innovations to manage financial risks. The contracting parties are obliged to exchange specified cash flows at specified intervals under a swap contract. In a nutshell, a swap contract can be defined as a series of forward contracts put together. If the exchange of interest rate payments in one currency for payments in another currency is devised, then it amounts to a currency swap. If the exchange between two parties of interest obligations or receipts in the same currency on an agreed amount of notional principal for an agreed period of time is devised, then it is known as interest rate swap. An interest rate swap is an agreement between two parties to exchange interest payments calculated on different bases over a period of time. Under interest rate swap, one party to the contract makes fixed –rate payments while the other party’s payments are based on a floating rate such as LIBOR. For instance, if a company which has borrowed from a bank at a floating rate (7 m LIBOR) may want to swap that for a fixed rate (7m LIBOR) so that they can cover the risk if the interest rates go up. On one side, they pay 7% (of the agreed notional principal) and receive 7m LIBOR and on the other side they pay 7m LIBOR straight out to repay their loan. Thus they have converted a floating rate loan into a fixed rate loan. The said bank may manages its own risk from the above swap transaction by backing it out with another swap , say by paying 6.95% for 7m LIBOR and thus they earn a profit of 0.5% difference thus avoiding the risk in the interest rate changes . The other different types of interest rate swap are: Basis swap: For instance, swapping 2m LIBOR for 4m LIBOR. Basic swaps are mostly used by mortgage companies because the get the mortgage payments on monthly basis. Both fixed Currency Swap : Both fixed and say fixed $ for fixed  £ Both floating currency swap: 2m $ LIBOR for 4 m Yen LIBOR. Cross Currency Swap: fixed  £ for 2m CHF LIBOR. Companies derive more flexibility to exploit their comparative advantage in their respective borrowing markets under currency swaps. Under interest rate swap, corporations try to focus on their comparative advantage in borrowing in a single currency in the short end of the maturity spectrum vs. the long –end of the maturity spectrum. USES OF DERIVATIVES: Derivatives are mainly used for speculation or hedging. For speculation, derivatives offer us leverage. For instance, instead of buying  £ 5Million bond in the anticipation that its price will rise up, one can buy an option on that bond, which might only cost  £ 2000. The profit chances or opportunities are the same less the price of the option but the risk is much less as the most we can loose in this deal is the option price ( £ 2000). For hedging, derivatives let you to seal the price now for a trade in future or at least limits the rise or fall of that price. An UK company holding a US bond which is on the verge of its maturity could buy an interest rate option to guarantee the dollar / sterling rate did not diminish the value of its bond. Volatility is regarded as the most precise measure of risk and its return. The greater the volatility, the greater the risk and the reward as it is evidenced in the transaction from bull to bear markets. It is to be observed in the bearish market, volatility and risk augment while returns disappear including short –selling returns. History: The very first exchange for trading derivatives started by Royal Exchange in London, which allowed forward contract. Likewise, the first future contract was introduced to Yodoya rice market in Osaka, Japan in 1650. Then in 1848, Chicago Board of Trade was started to handle futures market of US. Russell Sage, a famous New York financier introduced synthetic loans using the principle of put-call parity. Sage could able to create a synthetic loan by fixing the put, call and strike prices with interest rate poignantly higher than the US usury law permitted. Chicago Mercantile Exchange started International Monetary Market in 1972 which permitted trading in currency futures. The Chicago Board of Trade started first interest rate futures in 1975.Treasury bill futures contract was introduced in 1975 by Merc. The Chicago Board Options Exchange was started in 1973 and there were publications for the first time option pricing model of Fischer Black and Myron Scholes. Chicago Board Options Exchange created an option on an index of stocks which was originally known as CBOE 100 index which later known as S&P 100. During 1980, Swaps and other over-the –counter derivatives were introduced. It was in 1994, the derivative trade witnessed a series of huge losses and this affected experienced trading firms like Metallgesellschaft and Procter and Gamble. Orange country, California which is the America’s wealthiest city was declared as bankruptcy due to derivative trading and use of leverage in a portfolio of short -term Treasury securities. DERIVATIVES OR DESTRUCTIVE? A CASE STUDY OF BARINGS, UK. Baring Brothers, a British merchant bank went to bankruptcy in 1995 after incurring a whooping loss of  £ 860 million occurred on the Singapore and Osaka derivative exchanges. Nick Leeson, the bank’s star trader and absence of management controls to monitor his activities were the main reasons for this debacle. During the period between 1992 and 1995, Lesson built up positions in futures and options contracts on the Nikkei 225 stock exchange index, which proved highly profitable in the early years. Futures positions were bought by Lesson on the Nikkei index and financed cash calls on them as they fell in value by selling put options on the contract, thereby producing a straddle and thus betting against volatility of the market. Simex derivative exchange in Singapore were used to book the contracts and he run a hedged position on Nikkei index futures and make money by arbitraging between Singapore and Osaka markets. However he ceased hedging on the purchases made in Singapore and took on risk. Due to unexpected volatility in the market, losses were incurred and these losses in fact exceeded the net worth of Baring Bank .Lesson was later imprisoned for the falsification of records in an attempt to cover up his activities. The rationale of this case law is to elucidate how a bank can face bankruptcy if there is no proper risk management system is in force. The case also establishes the concept of ‘value at risk ‘(VAR) which is a simple method to express the risk of a portfolio. Because of the recent derivatives disasters, end-users, regulators, financial institutions and central bankers are now resorting to VAR as a method to foster stability in financial markets .The case illustrates how VAR could have been utilized to Baring Bank case to warn its management of the risk they were facing in advance. VOLATILITY: Volatility has its effect on administered market and it is high when both supply and demand are inelastic and liable to random shocks. According to Rudiger Dornbusch, market always overshoots in reaction to unexpected changes in economic variables. Volatility is a type of market incompetence and it is a reaction to uncertainty and excessive volatility is unreasonable. Volatility in stock and commodity market is represented by sharp changes in prices and inventory levels and level of volatility itself has fluctuated over the time. Changes in future prices, spot prices and inventories are influenced by changes in volatility Volatility is a determinant of changes in price expressed in percentage terms without regard to direction especially in stock price and stock index levels , commodities and in financial intermediaries .For example , an increase from 200 to 201 in one index is as same as the volatility terms to an increase in 100 to 101 in another index , because both changes are 1% and as this 1% increase is equal to volatility terms to a 1 % price decline .There are four ways to explain the volatility or movement and they are historical volatility , future volatility , expected volatility and implied volatility . Historical volatility is an appraiser of actual price variation during a particular period in the past. Future volatility refers annualized standard deviation of daily returns during particular future period basically between current and an option expiration. Expected volatility is an investor’s forecast of volatility utilized in an option method to gauge the theoretical value of an option. Implied volatility is the volatility percentage that illustrates the current market price of an option and it is the indicator of an option’s price. Volatility is described as standard deviation of the yield of an asset and the value of an option always increases with volatility. The greater the volatility, the higher the option chance during its life and convertible to the underlying asset at a marginal profit and this methodology has been proved in the Black-Scholes formula. Black-scholes formula yield results during trends and unsuccessful when the market change sign. â€Å" The implied volatilities are efficient forecasts of future volatility since varying market conditions cause volatilities to change through time stochastically and traditional volatilities   can not correct itself to varying market conditions as ghastly .Stochastic volatility contradicts the assumption required by the Black-Scholes model –if volatilities do modify stochastically through moment in time, the Black-Scholes method is no longer the correct pricing method and an implied volatility derived from the Black-Scholes formula provides no fresh information. Black-Scholes formula is lacking on certain issues like the oblique volatilities of various options on the identical stock tend to differ disregarding the formulas hypothesize that a single stock can be correlated with only one value of implied volatility. The Black-Scholes formula mainly ignores the distribution of stock prices in US market.   Some studies have revealed severe deviation from the price process fundamental to Black-Scholes formula like excess kurtosis, skewness, time varying volatilities and serial correlation. Further Black –scholes deals with stochastic volatility poorly and it relies on impractical assumption that market dickers endlessly thereby ignoring institutional constraints and transaction costs. Stock Charting: Stock charting is the process of a graphical sequence record enables it easier to dapple the effect of cardinal happenings on authoritarian security’s price., its functioning over a period of time and whether it’s trading its higher or its lower or in between these. Traders are very particular in daily, intraday data to forecast short-term price movements.   Investors rely on weekly and monthly charts to mark long term trends and movements. Line chart, Bar chart, Candlestick Chart and point and figure chart are some of the examples of stock charting method.   Arithmetic and semi-log arithmetic scales are two methods of price scaling used in the stock charting method. When the price range is hemmed within a tight range and used in general for short-term charts and trading. Semi-log scales are useful for long term charts to estimate the percentage movements over a foresighted period of time including large movements. Stock and other securities are estimated in relative terms through tools lime PE, Price/Revenues and Price/Book and as such it will be more useful to analyse in percentage terms. Ocillator: This is an indicator which is calculated by taking 10 day moving average of the difference between the numbers of advancing and defining issues for authoritarian given index. An indicator will reflect whether an index is gaining or losing impetus, so the size of the moves is more significant than the level of the current reading. The level of the reading is influenced by how the oscillator changes each day thereby dropping a value ten days ago and adding today’s value. The scale in moves is also helpful when it is compared with the divergence from the index price. If the Dow climaxes at the same time, the oscillator peaks in overbought area and suggests a top. Divergence is said to be negative and momentum is declining when index makes a new high but the oscillator fails to make a higher .One can buy if the index declines at this point but oscillator moves into oversold territory. If the oscillator rises above a previous overbought level though the index rises but does not make new heights, it is said to be upside momentum exists to continue the rally. Support: A support level is the price at which buyers are anticipated to enter the market in considerable numbers to take control from sellers. As the market has its track record, when price falls to a new low and then soars, the buyers who ignored on the first low will be persuaded to buy if price returns to that level back .Fearing of missing out the opportunity for the second time, these traders may enter into market in adequate numbers to take control from sellers. As the result, there is a rally strengthening sensitivity that price is unlikely to fall further thereby creating a support level. Resistance: The price level at which the sellers are anticipated to enter the market in sizeable numbers to take control from buyers is known as resistance level. If price makes a new High and then move back, sellers who ignored the previous High will be predisposed to sell when price returns to that level back. Fearing of missing the opportunity for the second time, these sellers may enter the market in large numbers to overwhelm buyers. As the result, market perception will be reinforced that price is unlikely to increase higher and form a resistance level. CANDLE CHARTING: It is a price chart that shows the open, low, the high and close for a stock each day over a specified period of time .It is known as Japanese candles because they used to analyse the price of rice contracts. When the close is higher than the open , the same is represented by an white empty box in the candle charting .When the close is lower than the open , then it is represented by a solid black candle ,Colored candles are used to reflect the day’s volume. Investment strategies in stock and options Following is the most of common investment strategies for keeping investment objectives, financial means and risk tolerance. Despite of market crash in 1929, market break in 1987, market correction in 1989 and though the prices of all securities fell down drastically but broad movement of the market has seen their value steadily increased. One of the strategies is to buy and hold for long the high quality stocks or futures of stock or commodities .The buy –and-hold strategy offers one to profit from this long term forward trend of the stock market. Further, dividend investment plan offers small investors a painless method of building wealth. Dollar –Cost Averaging: This is also a long term strategy and one has to invest in a stock or mutual fund or futures at regular intervals monthly, quarterly or semiannually. The success of dollar-cost averaging relies on consistency of amount invested and the regularity of the payments so as to minimize pricing and timing risk. The success of the Dollar cost averaging depends upon the following factors. The plan for the investment should be for a long period i.e. from 7 years to 10 years .In the last 100 years, there were about 40 recessions or market corrections or a downturn about every 3 years and If one carry on to invest through about three of these corrections, the profits of dollar-cost averaging tend to be maximized. 2 .Investment at regular intervals is most preferred. Investment should be made regularly regardless of the price of the stock. Give preference to high quality of stocks or mutual funds and a company or fund with history of habitual dividend payments and possible for capital appreciation is a better choice. One has to make sure that he has enough strength so that he can adhere to the plan through highs and lows and sell out at the peak and thus the money allocated for dollar-cost averaging result in wealth-building funds, not committed funds.[i] Going Short: An investor who prefers short i.e. enters into futures contract by agreeing to sell and deliver the underlying at a price and wishes to make profit from declining price levels and thereby selling high now , the contract can be repurchased in the future at a lesser price thus creating a profit for the investor. 16.Spreads: It involve taking benefit of the price difference between two different contracts of the same commodity and spreading is believed to be the most conventional forms of trading in the futures market because it is much safer than the trading long / short futures contract. There are different types of spread namely calendar spread, inter-exchange spread and inter-market spread. Swing Trading: It denotes a technique of placing emphasis on playing the swings in the PPS, selling on the highs and buying on the lows rather than the swiftness of the trade. To complete the swing trade, it may need more than a day, a week or authoritarian month or longer period and channeling stock is pursued by the some swing traders. Flipping: It refers the process of trading a stock very quickly with in minutes or hours etc as past as possible may be on the same day. It is often used to explain a buy and sell with a share that is running and where the trader buys the stock as it is moving up and sells the same on even a higher point in a short period of time. A flipper aim is to maximize his profits by emphasizing on fast trades to earn quick profits. The risk is also less downside as the trader sits in a stock for a less time. [i] Hall, Alvin D., and Carolyn M. Brown. â€Å"Investment Strategies Made Easy: Here’s How to Overcome Your Fears of the Market and Invest like a Pro.† Black Enterprise Mar. 1994: 66+. 2.Fisher, Black and Myron Scholes, â€Å"The pricing of Options and Corporate Liabilities â€Å"The Journal of Political Economy, 81,637-654. 3.Mackay, Charles. Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds: New York, Harmony Books (1980). 4.Chance .Don M.† A Chronology of Derivatives† Derivative Quarterly, 2 (winter, 1955) 53-60. 5.Thomas L. Friedman ,The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century Stephen Leeb, Glen Strathy ,The Coming Economic Collapse: How You Can Thrive When Oil Costs $200 a Barrel 7.George A. Fontanills, Tom Gentile The Volatility Course 8.George Soros, Paul A. Volcker The Alchemy of Finance (Wiley Investment Classics) 9.John C. Hull Options, Futures and Other Derivatives (6th Edition) 10.Marc Allaire ,The Options Strategist 11. George Kleinman, Trading Commodities and Financial Future: A Step by Step Guide to Mastering the Markets (3rd Edition). 12. Sheldon Natenberg ,Option Volatility & Pricing: Advanced Trading Strategies and Techniques Jeffrey M. Christian, Commodities Rising: The Reality Behind the Hype and How To Really Profit in the Commodities Market. John J. Murphy ,Technical Analysis of the Financial Markets: A Comprehensive Guide to Trading Methods and Applications (New York Institute of Finance John F. Carter, Mastering the Trade (McGraw-Hill Trader’s Edge) 16. Joseph Kellogg, Trading From the Inside 17. Thomas N. Bulkowski ,Encyclopedia of Chart Patterns (Wiley Trading) 18.Stephen W. Bigalow, Profitable Candlestick Trading: Pinpointing Market Opportunities to Maximize Profits   

Reflective writing †personal view Essay

There are many learning theories, each of them emphasizing various aspects of the teaching and learning process. I support the claim that adult learning should be looked at as a distinct style of learning and is unique to that of child and adolescence learning. Adults bring their life experiences into the classroom. They bring past knowledge as well as past biases and beliefs. Adult students want to be acknowledged as adults. They need to be actively involved in determining how and what they will learn, and they need active rather than passive learning experiences. Many adults are stressed from their daily lives responsibilities when they arrive for class and need a style of teaching that is creative, alive and humorous to hold their attention. Adult educators must produce learning environments in which all learners can feel they are accomplishing something or benefiting some how. The types of benefits and interpretation of accomplishment can vary depending on a person’s socio-economic background, culture, and situation in life, age or a variety of other variables. Whether or not a learning experience is successful will depend on the adult educator’s ability to understand the differences in people. Equally important is the personal experiences the educator has with a variety of participants and their characteristics. No one theory will fit every learning situation. There is an exception to every rule. There are, however, two theories that I feel closely supports my line of reasoning. First is Knowles’ theory of andragogy. Andragogy makes the following assumptions about the design of learning: (1) Adults need to know why they need to learn something (2) Adults need to learn experientially, (3) Adults approach learning as problem-solving, and (4) Adults learn best when the topic is of immediate value (Knowles, 1984). Knowles endeavored to develop a theory that was specific to adult learning. Knowles emphasizes that adults are self-directed and expect to take responsibility for decisions. Staff development programs must embrace this essential viewpoint (Knowles, 1984). Therefore, in following the theory of andragogy a successful staff development program would focus on the way the information was being taught and less on the information’s content. The program would concentrate on creativity, hands-on coursework, role-playing and individualized needs (Knowles, 1984). Second is Characteristics of Adult Learners (CAL) by P. Cross As found in this weeks reading material the CAL model joins together other adult learning theories such as andragogy, experimental learning and lifespan psychology. CAL consists of two classes of variables: personal characteristics and situational characteristics. Personal characteristics include: aging, life phases, and developmental stages. The three dimensions take on different roles depending on the point a person is in their life. Situational characteristics consist of the circumstances encompassing the students learning experience. These circumstances could be whether or not the person is going to school full-time or part-time, and perhaps the arrangement of their schedule. Despite their situation an adult learner will augment their effort when motivated by a need, a benefit, or a desire to learn. The experiences in which the learner will participate must be significant and meaningful to him or her in order to build incentive. Adult learners learn at different rates and in various ways. Their abilities can vary depending on their educational level, intellectual ability, personality and learning styles. In concluding I want to reiterate that I maintain adult learning should be looked at as a distinct style of learning. It is unique and should be studied separate to that of child and adolescence learning. Children learners are as a blank slate. Adult learners are entering the classroom with a mountain of issues surrounding their need or desire to learn. These situations must be addressed if we are to achieve success in holding the  interest of the adult learner. Adult learners need to be involved in active learning. The reason the adult learner has entered the classroom also needs to be addressed. The typical adult learner seeks out an education for a reason. The reason can be self-improvement, job enhancement, or quest for more income. It may be self-fulfillment, maintaining culture status, society status or a whole slew of other reasons. My point is, adults who pursue further education have a mission to fulfill. The need may be personal or secular. Knowles,M. (1984). The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species (3rd Ed.). Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing.

Vietnam War & Films Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Vietnam War & Films - Essay Example Rambo, a United States’ veteran from the Vietnam War, comes back to America and finds out that â€Å"for him nothing is as it used to be before the war† (Anderegg, p. 83, 1991). On a journey on the lookout for a military friend, he notices problem with a small city sheriff. Rambo is at first harassed by the sheriff and detained on fake blames of vagrancy. He works impulsively, overcomes all the protectors and escapes. Rambo has been working in a labor camp detention center when his former commander visits him and offers the opportunity to be freed from detention, but on condition of him going into Vietnam to look for American prisoners of war. Rambo meets an American civil servant who is in command of the operation and he informs Rambo that the American community is requiring information regarding the prisoners of war and they would like a skilled commando to step in and search for them. Rambo received the notice that he should only take pictures of the prisoners of war and not to save them, nor is he to involve in any opponent armed forces. Rambo unwillingly gives consent and he is subsequently told that a representative of the American government will be present to receive him in the ruthless situations of Vietnam. America has modified its perceptions about the Vietnam War and veterans of that war. By the year 1977, no one even likes to speak regarding Vietnam. From 1977 until 1980, a ‘whole bunch’ of actually excellent films on the subject of Vietnam War was released, and all of a sudden, it was justifiable. At the moment, it is acceptable to be a Vietnam veteran. Two of the early movies that cause the alteration in opinion were ‘Missing in Action’ and ‘Rambo: First Blood Part II’. ‘Platoon’ was the earliest of five key movies concentrating on the personal account of veterans about warfare's incidents. That was a year of self-assessment as well as understanding of history. It was a straightforward public acceptance of defeat during a 20 years old combat. Platoon (1986) and Full Metal Jacket (1987) symbolize a number of of the most excellent Vietnam films and each of them criticized the war from a special point of view. The proliferation of th ese films overlapped with the administration of Ronald Reagan, a Cold Warrior determined to finish the confrontation with the USSR. Vietnam films may have been aggravated by the need to remind Americans of the pointlessness of battles like Vietnam that started as a result of hopeless apprehensions of socialist growth. Nevertheless, most Americans during the 1980s had place Vietnam behind them, concentrating on creating nationwide as well as individual prosperity. Rambo arrives at the Vietnam soldiers’ camp, and in opposition to his briefing, he locates American captives there and releases one of them from a temporary crucifixion. Subsequent to his break out, the camp's Soviets, as well as Vietnamese soldiers are sent to try to find him. Rambo gathers his weapons, and by means of guerilla fighting approaches, is able to destroy a huge number of opponent military forces. He continues to a small rival camp and annihilates it along with quite a lot of vehicles. The movies that fo llowed near the beginning of 1980s created a mythic Vietnam: the revenge movies about

Inclusive sport in UK society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Inclusive sport in UK society - Essay Example With this, there are a lot of individuals who are prompted to involve and even develop themselves into several sporting events. There are statistical data which states that there are national or professional athletes who are not passionate with the sport that they are playing but do play because of money. In dealing with this, one might say that sporting in UK would mean career and employment opportunities for some. There are a lot of spectators who are saying that these kinds of occurrences really prompted people to go on several sports as a career. However, they also stated that some even though not that physically capable and deserving are pushing them to become a part of the national team or play on major commercial leagues. Such occurrences are well-documented. In further dealing with this, there are also irregularities and deprivation which are happening in different fields of sports in UK. These occurrences have something to do with racism, gender and sometimes social status between the rich and the poor and the disabled one. In dealing with this, a thinking that playing sport as a right of an individual is now replaced by the thought that the privileged ones are those who could enjoy a sporting event to the fullest as well as the perks and incentives encircling it should a certain individual be hired and open a career as a sportsman. In this case, several instances occurred in dealing with this issue, UNESCO has reported several instances involving racial discrimination even in professional football league in UK. There are a lot of accounted deprivations and discrimination of some individuals in sports played in UK in which they were not given equal opportunities with regards to playing time, exposures and the likes. In November 2000, unesco.org have reported that "Three days into England's new football season and Patrick Vieira, France's World Cup and Euro 2000 winning midfield player, is dismissed while playing for Arsenal against Liverpool, earning his second red card in as many matches. The British press is quick to speculate that he will quit the English game, invoking the player's own accusations that he has been subject to "racist" intimidation from players and officials alike. According to Vieira, he is being singled out for abuse not because he is black, but because he is French-a complaint previously made by expat footballers like Eric Cantona, Frank Leboeuf and Emmanuel Petit-Only months before, a defender playing for West Ham faced disciplinary charges after allegedly calling Vieira a "French prat" and joking that "he could smell the garlic" when the midfielder spat at him" Issues and controversies surrounding inclusive sport in UK society 3 Furthermore, UNESCO (2000) stressed that such incidents are just replication of history adding that "In England, the cradle of football hooliganism, the debate over racism in football has evolved. Overt racism among supporters and abuse directed at black players, both of which flourished in the 1970s and 1980s, have declined steeply in recent years in the face of vociferous public campaigning, though residual pre-judices against foreign players have evidently been unaffected. Elsewhere, in

Traditional vs. New Parenting Styles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Traditional vs. New Parenting Styles - Essay Example The economic, social, political and cultural changes have been observed throughout the world. The evolving temperaments, attitudes, and behaviors have changed the course of human life. People no longer wait for others to change or alter a trend but believe in changing society by their individual and collective efforts. The changes that have occurred have also influenced the people’s behaviors towards each other, their relationships, values, priorities and daily life procedures. The changes in the relationships of married couples, parents and their children, teacher and students, children and grandparents etc. carry an important position in the social renovation of today’s environment. Parenting styles have been changed significantly from past till today. Today’s parents are more inclined towards teaching their children about independence, free thinking, autonomy and open-mindedness (Talay-Ongan et al., 2005 p. 31). They are given the confidence of taking their decisions by themselves and stepping towards their brighter future without interruption from or influence of others. This new parenting style, however, is efficient in making the children bold, confident, self-esteemed and determined; yet lacks in a few areas. These parenting behaviors may end up making children overconfident. The new values of children give them the power to proceed with their lives leaving their parents and other relatives behind. The independence and concept of sovereignty given to them affect their behaviors negatively, at times. Hence, these concepts, although necessary for the children’s upcoming life, may not always be beneficial for the children. Traditionally, parents used to obtain the parenting guidance from their elders like parents and grandparents and use that guidance or wisdom words to raise their children. However, today parents usually rely on the books, research paper, and different organizations to gather information on successful parenting techniques.     Ã‚  

Implementing the Risk Management Process in New Kitchen Heaven Retail Essay

Implementing the Risk Management Process in New Kitchen Heaven Retail Store - Essay Example The intention of this study is risk as the probability that a chosen action or activity including the choice of inaction might result into a loss or undesirable outcome. This implies that a choice has an element of influence on the outcome. Risk management process is therefore the systematic application of the policies, methods and practices of management to the tasks of establishing the context, analyzing, evaluating, monitoring, treating and finally reviewing the inherent risks. Risk management process is therefore an ongoing process that aids in identifying potential problems that could emerge when new projects are undertaken within a business. A solid risk management process facilitates the smooth running of a project. By identifying and addressing a list of project risks which are also part of the larger project or business management system, many disclosures and roadblocks are eliminated. Consequently the risk management process is an essential factor that should be considered in an organization so as to enable its business to effectively run. It ensures that a well structured a framework for more effective strategic planning to enable maximization of opportunities and minimization off losses is put. It equally promotes greater openness in decision making and improves communication in an organization as well as providing an effective and systematic approach which enhances the management focus on areas of risk concentration in their operations. Moreover, risk management widens the management’s perspective and encourages initiative and proactive behavior that improve the level of accountability in an organization. Identifying the Risk Factors Considering the compilation lists of the NKHRS project risks, it is realized that the major risks are concentrated in three sections, that is, in areas of Information Technology, Facilities and Retail. In the area of Information Technology there is the risk of getting a professional contractor to install the Eth ernet so as to enable effective operations. Similarly, there is the risk of getting the Point of Sale and server hardware in time for the smooth operations .In the area of facilities it is noted that there is a risk in obtaining the right and desirable location bearing the right price range This location might as well be risky in terms of the availability of the goods and the products accessibility to the consumers. In this case a plan should be developed to decide on whether to find the right location for a high producing store to avoid great loss in sales or to consider a different alternative that can generate good profits (Culp, 2006). Consequently, in the Retail category there is the risk of the availability of the products at the right time to the customers and that the shipment date for the

Hinduism paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Hinduism paper - Essay Example (Brodd, 2003) Interestingly, Hinduism differs from the other dominating religions, such as Christianity, Islam, Judaism, etc due to a number of factors. Firstly, unlike abovementioned religions, Hinduism does not offer a uniting belief system, which has often been criticized by scholars of comparative religious studies. However, despite of such lacking, this religion has been able to unite its followers socially, as well as, culturally. (Michaels, 2004) In other words, Hinduism can be deemed as a cultural and regional platform for moral development, rather than a religious notion. One of the most significant factors that unite members of Hindu religion is its region. Unlike other religions where a religious scholar can bring a non-religious person into his religion, only individuals that born in the sub-continent are allowed to be a part of Hinduism, which is one of the most significant factors of uniting members of the Hindu community. Generally, it is a misconception that Hinduism is a polytheistic religion; however, Vedas are the most recognized sacred scriptures of Hinduism that pronounces monotheistic concept of God. In practice, Hindus worship different deities and idols, which are considered as attributes to one God, Brahma, and idolatry is an important practice of Hinduism that has kept its followers united in a cultural manner. (Brodd, 2003) Thirdly, social structure described in sacred scriptures of Hinduism has played a vital and crucial role in maintaining balance in the Hindu society. Although social classes of such system, such as Brahmin, Kshat riya, Vaishya, and Shudra have been used politically as well; however, it has organized the society in an effective manner. Cultural aspect of Hinduism has played a significant role in influencing the social and cultural practices of people living in the sub-continent. Devotional literature and traditions have provided an aesthetic touch to

Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 5

Economics - Essay Example The works by Prebisch (1947; 1949) and Singher (1950) attempted to explain economic growth based on the differences in products produced by different nations. The less developed nations according to these theories have to purchase the manufactured goods from the Northern nations at prices in excess of what of what they get for selling their primary goods (to the Northern nations). This ultimately adversely affects the economic growth of the less developed nations and thus they remain less developed (Todaro, 2003). These theories thus argue for promoting import-substituting policies for economic growth. Alternative theories by Harrod (1939) and advanced by Kregel (1980) capture the dynamics of economic growth by assuming that it is determined endogenously by the saving and investment decisions of firms. In this model, the growth rates put forward are actual, warranted and natural growth rates. Based on this approach, the long run growth rate is determined by the closed economy social saving rate rather than net exports. However, this model has been criticised for showing the possibility of unstable growth in a capitalist economy (Moudud, 2000). It has been shown that though there can be instability to some extent for the growth path, its extent is restricted by many endogenous factors in a capitalist economy (Moudud, 2000). 3. Conclusion In this essay, the discussion shows that low savings rate alone cannot explain the differences between developed and developing nations. By improving saving rates alone, developing nations cannot catch up with the West. Many other factors discussed above determine the differences between these nations. 1. Introduction The relationship between free trade and economic growth has been a topic of debate for the academicians and policy makers in the recent years. In this essay, the arguments for and against free trade are discussed. 2. Arguments for and Against Free Trade Greater availability of cheaper goods from abroad will lower t he domestic price level, since the consumption bundle used to compute broad inflation measures includes imported goods. The magnitude of this effect depends on the share of imports in the consumption bundle of the representative household.Also as the economy opens up the shocks to the price level due to the domestic farm sector; output fluctuations are likely to ease which may diminish the price fluctuations (Jin, 2000 etc). As per the Dutch disease hypothesis (Collier and Gunning, 1999) and the political economy models (Alesina and Perotti, 1994), trade openness can affect fiscal deficits through the instability of government revenue. First, countries with an outward-looking strategy have higher levels of competition, are less corrupt (Ades and Di Tella, 1999) and have higher fiscal balances and lower fiscal deficit. Second, trade openness increases income inequalities which enhances the demand of public goods (Alesina and Perotti, 1994) and, simultaneously, reduces the ability of governments to collect taxes. Third, trade policy could reduce government revenue in the short run (Bean, 1999), which could occur when increases in openness result from a reduction in tariffs. However, for a given level of tariffs, government revenue from taxes is an increasing function of trade openness. Thus, in the

Poetry essay Essay Example for Free

Poetry essay Essay ?How does Owen Sheers use language, form and structure to explore ideas about separation and division in ‘Winter Swans’? The Poem ‘Winter Swans’ seems to convey a strong theme of natural love. The poem begins with setting a scene of a peaceful day, where nature seems to be stilled after the torrential weather that is referred to in the first line through ‘The clouds had given their all. ’ It goes on to say that there was then a ‘break’, and throughout the poem the poet uses words such as ‘silent’ and ‘rolling’, ‘stilling’ and ‘slow-stepping’ to capture this scene of peace and serenity, as if the world was resting after being thrashed about by a storm. With the idea of a natural love, there comes the confusion and the inartificial knowledge that love is not materialistic, a feeling and something that can not be brought on by force. Through all natural love stories come feelings of hurt and division. A separation that brings the subjects closer and strengthens the emotion. Sheers uses the theme of leaving, and then returning, or rage, and then peace, or the unknown, and then the known to reoccur throughout the poem, eventually strengthening the love, which could be argued as the main emotion of the poem. The poet also uses imagery such as ‘lakes and ‘swans’, to symbolise the peacefulness, and also to symbolise love. You notice words that show the subject is not alone, with ‘we’ and ‘our’. These words and also the motion of the swans, the lake, and the peacefulness are foreshadowing that the poem will take a turning onto love that is more literate. However I don’t think that the poems theme is so much about love in particular, but about a natural love, a natural pull that brings two people together even after hard times. Sheer’s uses Swans as a metaphor of love, the way swans will smoothly dip in and out of the water, and how they are known to curve towards and away from each other as if dancing on ice. They are the perfect example to show the way love will draw away and then come back. He uses vocabulary ranging from ‘silent’ and ‘rolling’ to ‘righting’ and ‘rough’ to show the separation and how quickly the emotions get confused, and how quickly compassion will turn into anger, and vice versa. The poem begins referring to this in the first stanza with weather, as raging storm. And then a ‘break’. The poet then adds on ‘in which we walked’, showing possibly that the subject and whoever they are with also went through a hard time, but are now peaceful along with the nature. In the fourth stanza it describes the swans ‘halving themselves’ in the ‘dark water’, to portray a hard time, but then ‘returning again like boats righting in rough weather’ It then moves onto the poems only piece of speech, â€Å"they mate for life. † Which rounds off the conclusion of the theme of the poem, that although there are hard times, they will always be pulled back together. The poem then shows this also applies for the people, as at the beginning of the poem it describes them as being ‘silent and apart’, but right at the end it shows them holding hands, symbolising how they are together. The poem’s theme is concluded with comparing them to a ‘pair of wings settling after flight’, to show that finally, the emotion has strengthened, and they can settle after the confusion and separation.

Syntax and Semantics Essay Example for Free

Syntax and Semantics Essay In programming language theory, semantics is the field concerned with the rigorous mathematical study of the meaning of programming languages. It does so by evaluating the meaning of syntactically legal strings defined by a specific programming language, showing the computation involved. In such a case that the evaluation would be of syntactically illegal strings, the result would be non-computation. Semantics describes the processes a computer follows when executing a program in that specific language. This can be shown by describing the relationship between the input and output of a program, or an explanation of how the program will execute on a certain platform, hence creating a model of computation. Semantics reveals the meaning of syntactically valid strings in a language. For natural languages, this means correlating sentences and phrases with the objects, thoughts, and feelings of our experiences. For programming languages, semantics describes the behavior that a computer follows when executing a program in the language. We might disclose this behavior by describing the relationship between the input and output of a program or by a step-by-step explanation of how a program will execute on a real or an abstract machine. Semantics is concerned with the interpretation or understanding of programs and how to predict the outcome of program execution. The semantics of a programming language describe the relation between the syntax and the model of computation. Semantics can be thought of as a function which maps syntactical constructs to the computational model. This approach is called syntax-directed semantics There are several widely used techniques ( algebraic, axiomatic, denotational, operational, and translation) for the description of the semantics of programming languages. †¢Algebraic semantics describe the meaning of a program by defining an algebra. The algebraic relationships and operations are described by axioms and equations. †¢Axiomatic semantics defines the meaning of the program implicitly. It makes assertions about relationships that hold at each point in the execution of the program. Axioms define the properties of the control structures and state the properties that may be inferred. A property about a program is deduced by using the axioms. Each program has a pre-condition which describes the initial conditions required by the program prior to execution and a post-condition which describes, upon termination of the program, the desired program property. †¢Denotational semantics tell what is computed by giving a mathematical object (typically a function) which is the meaning of the program. Denotational semantics are used in comparitive studies of programming langauges. †¢Operational semantics tell how a computation is performed by defining how to simulate the execution of the program. Operational semantics may describe the syntactic transformations which mimic the execution of the program on an abstract machine or define a translation of the program into recursive functions. Operational semantics are used when learning a programming language and by compiler writers. †¢Translation semantics describe how to translate a program into an other langauge usually the language of a machine. Translation semantics are used in compilers. Much of the work in the semantics of programming languages is motivated by the problems encountered in trying to construct and understand imperative programs programs with assignment commands. Since the assignment command reassigns values to variables, the assignment can have unexpected effects in distant portions of the program. Syntax In computer science, the syntax of a computer language is the set of rules that defines the combinations of symbols that are considered to be correctly structured document or fragment in that language. This applies both to programming languages, where the document represents source code, and markup languages, where the document represents data. The syntax of a language defines its surface form.[1] Text-based computer languages are based on sequences of characters, while visual programming languages are based on the spatial layout and connections between symbols (which may be textual or graphical). Documents that are syntactically invalid are said to have a syntax error. Syntax refers to the ways symbols may be combined to create well-formed sentences (or programs) in the language. Syntax deï ¬ nes the formal relations between the constituents of a language, thereby providing a structural description of the various expressions that make up legal strings in the language. Syntax deals solely with the form and structure of symbols in a language without any consideration given to their meaning. Syntax – the form – is contrasted with semantics – the meaning. In processing computer languages, semantic processing generally comes after syntactic processing, but in some cases semantic processing is necessary for complete syntactic analysis, and these are done together or concurrently. In a compiler, the syntactic analysis comprises the frontend, while semantic analysis comprises the backend (and middle end, if this phase is distinguished). Syntax versus semantics The syntax of a language describes the form of a valid program, but does not provide any information about the meaning of the program or the results of executing that program. The meaning given to a combination of symbols is handled by semantics (either formal or hard-coded in a reference implementation). Not all syntactically correct programs are semantically correct. Many syntactically correct programs are nonetheless ill-formed, per the languages rules; and may (depending on the language specification and the soundness of the implementation) result in an error on translation or execution. In some cases, such programs may exhibit undefined behavior. Even when a program is well-defined within a language, it may still have a meaning that is not intended by the person who wrote it. Using natural language as an example, it may not be possible to assign a meaning to a grammatically correct sentence or the sentence may be false: †¢Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. is grammatically well-formed but has no generally accepted meaning. †¢John is a married bachelor. is grammatically well-formed but expresses a meaning that cannot be true. Statement In computer programming a statement is the smallest standalone element of an imperative programming language. A program written in such a language is formed by a sequence of one or more statements. A statement will have internal components (e.g., expressions). Many languages (e.g. C) make a distinction between statements and definitions, with a statement only containing executable code and a definition declaring an identifier. A distinction can also be made between simple and compound statements; the latter may contain statements as components.

Management of Implant Related Nerve Injury

Management of Implant Related Nerve Injury Nerve injury following implant therapy often results in paraesthesic or anaesthesic effects that affect quality of life of the patient. Patients usually experience postoperative changes in sensation, including pain, even though the intraoperative procedures were uneventful. In cases of uneventful clinical implant placement procedures, a postoperative telephonic interview, as soon as the effects of anaesthesia have dissipated, will enable the clinician to determine possible nerve injury and hence initiate management protocols. Postoperative radiography would be essential to assess whether the inferior alveolar nerve canal or mental foramen have been traversed, however it must be noted that absence of radiographic findings do not preclude nerve injury. Management protocols aim to alleviate pain, loss of normal sensation and overall discomfort following nerve related injuries, with varying degrees of success depending on the nature of injury. Hence, it is clearly identified that the imp ortance of comprehensive pre-planning mitigates the need for management of nerve related injuries. Nerve injuries in the maxilla are relatively uncommon compared to mandible. Branches of the greater palatine nerve, posterior superior alveolar nerve, and the nasopalatine nerve, which supply the gingival issues in the anterior and posterior palate and buccal mucosa of the maxilla, are inevitably damaged due to flap procedures in implant therapy. Due to the rich anastomosis between these nerves, very rarely does this damage result in neural deficit. Numerous academic studies have been attributed to implant related nerve injury of the mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve, more importantly, the inferior alveolar nerve, mental nerve, and the lingual nerve. Interventions can be broadly classified as, a.  Non-surgical b.  Surgical, and c.  alternate treatments. a. Non-Surgical Therapy This form of therapy should be mandated as soon as signs and / or symptoms of nerve injury be suspected, whether intraoperatively or postoperatively. Corticosteriods, dexamethasone (8mg daily for 3 days) or prednisolone (1mg/kg/day up to 80mg day), in high doses have been shown to minimize neuropathies in acute nerve injuries if administered within 1 week of the injury. A non-steriodal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) could be added to the regimen or prescribed as an alternative. Ibuprofen, 800mg three times daily for 3 weeks, is a suitable NSAID. Corticosteriods and NSAIDs reduce the inflammatory response with corticosteroids having the added effect of preventing ectopic discharges from injured axons and preventing neuroma formation (Juodzbalys et al, 2011). Pain and temperature are the first sensations to resolve with other sensations taking longer (Alhassani and Alghamdi, 2010: 405; Juodzbalys et al, 2011). The use of topical applications has not been broadly researched. Capsaicin and clonidine patches along with EMLA paste (4% lignocaine) are some of the products used to treat hyperalgesia with varying success. Topical clonazepam, 0.5mg to 1.0 mg 3 times day was shown to be effective in relieving burning oral pain (Graff-Radford and Evans, 2003: 979, Fukada et al, 2012). Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), antiepileptic drugs, and muscle relaxants have been effective in treating cases with neuropathic pain and intermittent pains which exhibit an â€Å"electric shock† – like symptoms (Graff-Radford and Evans, 2003: 980). An example of a TCA is amitriptyline although other antidepressants can be used. In patients where TCAs are contraindicated, serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (Venlafaxine) can be prescribed. Gabapentin and topiramate are antiepileptic drugs which stabilize the injured nerve membrane. It must be noted that this class pharmacological agents depress the activity in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Hence patients on these therapies can expect side effects including, drowsiness, loss of memory, and somnolence. It can be expected that some patients cannot manage the side effects of these drugs and opt to live with pain or altered sensations (Renton et al, 2012; Park et al, 2010: 345). Cryotherapy is effective treatment to minimize swelling over the osteotomy site and hence minimizing secondary nerve damage due to swelling. Use of ice packs in the first 24 hours promotes post-surgical recovery and reduces nerve degeneration and neuroma formation (Juodzbalys et al, 2011). A stellate ganglion block is a treatment modality that used to treat patients experiencing chronic neuropathic pain and to relieve subjective symptoms. If performed early,1 to 2 month post nerve injury, it accelerates neurophysiological repair by blocking the sympathetic nervous system hence increasing blood flow and decreasing oedema (Fukada et al,2012;). A more recent non-surgical, non-invasive approach includes the use low level laser therapy (LLLT), also known as cold laser therapy, for inducing tissue repair. The initial concept, now available for mainstream commercial use, has been gaining interest as research with over 200 random clinical trials have been already published, 50% of which were aimed at pain relief, but it must be noted fewer studies have investigated its efficacy in the head and neck region. LLLT broadly aims to reduce inflammation and provide analgesia by blocking peripheral axonal transmission and stimulating nerve regeneration / healing. After repeated treatments with LLLT, decreased central sensitization is acheived (ThorLaser). [ABDUL PLEASE ASSIST ME WITH THAT REFERENCE FROM THORLASER]. In animal studies, LLLT has shown positive results in enhancing myelination of axons and nerve function. In the Midamba and Haanaes 1993 study, similar protocols were used on patients with long standing inferior alveolar or l ingual nerve neurosensory deficits, an average of 71,1% improvement was noticed in subjective symptoms (cited in Ozen et al, 2006: 7). The use of vitamin B12 as an adjunct with routine pharmacotherapy is thought to promote the regeneration of nerve terminals. Modalities that increase blood flow to the injured nerve also promote healing. These include near infrared therapy to increase local blood flow and adenosine triphosphate by causing vasodialation. b.Surgical Therapy Microsurgical repair includes procedures that involve internal neurolysis, external neurolysis, and removal of the neuroma. Microsurgical repair of the injured nerve carries its own risk as permanent anaesthesia is a possibility. Hence, these procedures are carried out with aid of a microscope by specialist neurosurgeons or trained maxillo-facial surgeons. Microsurgical repair of the lingual or inferior alveolar nerve has been shown to have significantly improved sensory outcomes in most patients with total recovery in a fewer patients. Zicchardi et al (2009: 300) have concluded that statistically, there were no significant differences between the microsurgical neurosensory outcomes between the inferior alveolar and lingual nerves. It has been reported that 55% to 82% of patients show improved neurosensory outcomes of microsurgical repair of the inferior alveolar nerve (Strauss et al, 2006: 1769; Bagheri et al, 2012: 1983). This wide range leads to hypothesize that other factors play a role in the outcomes of microsurgical nerve repair. Time between the nerve injury and microsurgical repair has been a topic of debate with regards to sensory outcomes. Some groups advocate early repair (6 month or earlier post-injury), and some groups finding no statistical difference in sensory outcomes between early or later repairs. However, in a retrospective cohort study undertaken by Bagheri et al, a cohort of 167 patients were evaluated post-microsurgical repair, where it was deduced that early repairs were directly related to better outcomes. Younger patients (patients less than 51 years) also yielded a more favourable outcome than older patients. Neurosensory testing will also give insight into the severity of damage and hence the outcome of microsurgical repair, if indicated. In cases where it has been clearly established that nerve damage has occurred post implant therapy, removal of the implant within 24 to 30 hours has been shown to resolve neuropathy (Renton et al, 2012). c.  Other Treatment Modalities It is clear from above that nerve injury post implant therapy has an effect on the quality of life of affected patients. Some patients even lose confidence in their treating physician / dentist / specialist as a result, and opt for alternate management strategies. Psychotherapeutic interventions, including cognitive behavioural therapy, aim to manage the resulting depression, if diagnosed. When combined with psycho-active chemotherapy, stress management techniques, and hypnosis, has been shown to be effective in managing neuropathic pain. Patients are taught to modify their behaviours according to their symptoms, psychological traits and ultimately decreasing patients’ pain-related disability (Dickenson et al, 2010: 1644). Further investigation into treatment modalities for nerve injuries, iatrogenic or otherwise, make mention of other procedures, that are beyond the topic of this discussion, but include the use of epidural injections, neuromodulation, transcutaneous electrical stimulation, spinal cord stimulation and deep brain stimulation. There are no clearly defined management protocols for the management of nerve injury post implant therapy, however, Juodzbalys et al, (2011), have constructed a management guideline that incorporates some of the treatment modalities described above (See Table 1). REFERENCES Alhassani, A., Alghamdi, A.S.T., 2010. Inferior alveolar nerve injury in implant dentistry: Diagnosis, causes, prevention, and management. Journal of Oral Implantology, 36 (5), 401 – 407, viewed 30 April 2014, (Ebsco online / Allen Press). Bagheri, S.C, Meyer, R.A, Cho, S,H, Thoppay, J, Khan, H.A, Steed, M, 2012. Microsurgical repair of the inferior alveolar nerve: Success rate and factors that adversely affect outcome. Journal of Oral Maxillofacial Surgery, 70, 1978 – 1990, viewed 30 April 2014, (online Science Direct). Dickinson, B.D, Head, A, Gitlow, S, Osbahr III, A.J, 2010. Maldynia: Pathophysiology and management of neuropathic and maladaptive pain – A report of the AMA Council on Science and Public Health. Pain Medicine, 11, 1635 – 1653, viewed 24 May 2014, (Ebsco online / Wiley Blackwell). Fukuda, K, Ichinohe, T, Kaneko, Y, 2012. Pain management for nerve injury following dental implant surgery at a Tokyo dental college hospital. International Journal of Dentistry. vol. 2012, Article ID 209474, viewed 22 April 2014, (Ebsco online / Hindawi Corporation). Graff-Radford, S.B, Evans, R.W, 2003. Lingual nerve injury. Headache, 43, 975 – 983, viewed 21 April 2014, (Ebsco online / Wiley Blackwell). Juodzbalys, G., Wang, H-L, Sbalys, G., 2011. Injury of the inferior alveolar nerve during implant placement: a literature review. Journal of Oral Maxillofacial Research , 2 (1), 1 – 20, viewed 22 April 2014, (Ebsco online). Ozen, T, Orhan, K, Gorur, I, Ozturk, A, 2006. Efficacy of low level laser therapy on neurosensory recovery after injury to the inferior alveolar nerve. Head Face Medicine, 2, 3-9, viewed 01 June 2014, (Ebsco online / BioMed Central). Park, J.H, Lee, S.H, Kim, S.T, 2010. Pharmacological management of trigeminal nerve pain after implant surgery. International Journal of Prosthodontics, 23, 342 – 346, viewed 22 April 2014, (Ebsco online, Quintessence) Renton, T., Dawood, A., Shah, A., Searson, L., Yilmaz, Z., 2012. Post-implant neuropathy of the trigeminal nerve. A case series. British Dental Journal, 212 (E17), 1 – 6, viewed 30 April 2014, (online Nature Group). Strauss, E.R, Ziccardi, V.B, Janal, M.N, 2006. Outcome assessment of inferior alveolar nerve microsurgery : a retrospective review. Journal of Oral Maxillofacial Surgery, 64, 1767 – 1770, viewed 05 May 2014, (Ebsco online/ Quintessence). Ziccardi, V.B, Riviera, L, Gomes, J, 2009. Comparison of lingual and inferior alveolar nerve microsurgery outcomes. Quintessence International, 40, 295 – 301, viewed 02 May 2014, (Ebsco online/ Quintessence). THORLASER

Caribbean Society Essay -- Plantations Caribbean History Essays

Caribbean Society An Essay on the Culture of Incarceration A suggestion was made, in the context of the classroom setting that an interesting assignment would be to question shoppers at a suburban mall about slavery in the Caribbean and to capture the responses on videotape. An initial thought in response to this suggestion was to wonder just how one would go about eliciting any sort of meaningful response from a likely ill-informed and possibly disinterested group of consumers in central Connecticut on this subject. Obviously, to ask questions in survey fashion regarding which Caribbean Island the respondent might prefer to vacation at during these cold weather months would produce some informed opinions. That being the case, it seems only fair, even logical, that one should have some understanding of the nature of slavery that once existed there, from which its present population has emerged. Given the desirability and popularity of such vacation destinations, it would be of paramount insensitivity to not understand its history of slavery, the foundation of its society. A Society Imposed from Europe and Africa The arrival of Columbus and the Spanish at the end of the 15th century represented an economic ‘consolation prize’ of sorts for failure to make the East India connection. The discovery of precious metals soon helped them forget the spices of the Orient, however, and the indigenous Arawak people were rapidly pressed into service in the mining of them. In subsequent decades, greater quantities of gold and especially silver were found further west, in Mexico and Peru, and the imperial attentions shifted there. Left behind were the now Spanish controlled islands of the Caribbean to function primarily as provisions... ...ation arrangement was its capacity to regimentally control the activity of the overwhelming majority of the population in the service of monocrop production for export. The implications are that the degrading and dehumanizing nature of slavery was subinfeudated into the dependency of an entire island’s population on the success of the plantation enterprise. Since nearly all suitable land was devoted to the plantation, usually sugar, importation of food was often required. This then translates into the dismal reality that, while life as a slave on the plantation was an unbearable existence that portended a short life-expectancy, life outside of it may have an even less certain survival, particularly on the smaller, plantation-saturated islands such as Barbados. It is this entrapment that defined the masses of humanity residing in the Caribbean for several centuries.

Got Internet Pornography? Essay -- Internet Pornography Essays

Got Internet Pornography? Pornography is viewed differently by everyone. Is pornography as bad as it is made out to be? What if it is that persons outlet from reality, just like smoking, drinking, snowboarding, skiing. Is it hurting anyone. Some say it is degrading to women. Do those women that do it think it is degrading. If they did they wouldn’t do it. There are several different types of pornography in the world. It started in art where we had sculptures of Aphrodite naked, we had many artists who painted pictures of nude women. But people look at that and say oh how pretty. But in the present day we have printing presses, we have internet, and people try to make their own art with their bodies and people criticize them. Why? How? Are they jealous because they don’t feel comfortable with showing their bodies to people. Pornography has taken a drastic turn since the internet. I will be talking about the pros and cons for pornography on the internet, the increase in child pornography, the boom ing of pornography on the internet ,and the confusion with all the different laws in our society. â€Å"Pornography in the 90's has been on a steady increase. With the popularity of the internet growing daily, pornography has also grown. Pornography has NOT however grown to the Herculean proportions which many believe. The industry itself according to Forbes is 'at best $520 million' (Forbes.com) not the $10 billion which is a false statistic, also according to Forbes.†(http://www.eden.rutgers.edu/%7Eskwong/pornography/internet.html). I believe that pornography on the internet is a good idea because you can monitor it easier than monitoring those hidden magazines that your kids somehow always find them. This way you don’t have to go to the s... ...tables that show from a survey about how many people have visited sex sites broken down to male female, born again Christians, married, single, living together, divorced, and widowed. These graphs will show that pornography is not that dangerous, and is harmless. Although it has it’s pros and cons I am for pornography, it gives a person that escape from reality like everyone needs once in a while. On the down side I am and will always be against child pornography on some degree. Younger than 16 I am against it totally but 16 that is a gray area for me because when I was 18 years old my girlfriend was 16 years old. So it’s like looking at porn but in the flesh. That’s why I say they should make up their minds about the age. Either you can give consent to get pictures taken of you or you can’t give sex until you are 18. It’s one or the other it can’t be both. Got Internet Pornography? Essay -- Internet Pornography Essays Got Internet Pornography? Pornography is viewed differently by everyone. Is pornography as bad as it is made out to be? What if it is that persons outlet from reality, just like smoking, drinking, snowboarding, skiing. Is it hurting anyone. Some say it is degrading to women. Do those women that do it think it is degrading. If they did they wouldn’t do it. There are several different types of pornography in the world. It started in art where we had sculptures of Aphrodite naked, we had many artists who painted pictures of nude women. But people look at that and say oh how pretty. But in the present day we have printing presses, we have internet, and people try to make their own art with their bodies and people criticize them. Why? How? Are they jealous because they don’t feel comfortable with showing their bodies to people. Pornography has taken a drastic turn since the internet. I will be talking about the pros and cons for pornography on the internet, the increase in child pornography, the boom ing of pornography on the internet ,and the confusion with all the different laws in our society. â€Å"Pornography in the 90's has been on a steady increase. With the popularity of the internet growing daily, pornography has also grown. Pornography has NOT however grown to the Herculean proportions which many believe. The industry itself according to Forbes is 'at best $520 million' (Forbes.com) not the $10 billion which is a false statistic, also according to Forbes.†(http://www.eden.rutgers.edu/%7Eskwong/pornography/internet.html). I believe that pornography on the internet is a good idea because you can monitor it easier than monitoring those hidden magazines that your kids somehow always find them. This way you don’t have to go to the s... ...tables that show from a survey about how many people have visited sex sites broken down to male female, born again Christians, married, single, living together, divorced, and widowed. These graphs will show that pornography is not that dangerous, and is harmless. Although it has it’s pros and cons I am for pornography, it gives a person that escape from reality like everyone needs once in a while. On the down side I am and will always be against child pornography on some degree. Younger than 16 I am against it totally but 16 that is a gray area for me because when I was 18 years old my girlfriend was 16 years old. So it’s like looking at porn but in the flesh. That’s why I say they should make up their minds about the age. Either you can give consent to get pictures taken of you or you can’t give sex until you are 18. It’s one or the other it can’t be both.

Ruse’s Argument

The primary argument of Michael Ruse regarding genetic engineering is that it is very possible to proceed with the scientific method of biological entity without harming the spiritual aspect of what most religions, specifically with Christianity teach about the natural tendency of existence. His main argument is that it is possible to reconcile religion with Evolutionary Theory (Wikipedia, 2007). The stigma of creating a world of regret and blasphemy is no longer a valid reason why biological nature should be abandoned whereas it cold significantly harnessed to lead to the development of the human population. This caused some high criticisms over ethics and religious groups who were able to consider the argument of Ruse to be a serious matter. In comparison with Glover and the CRG’s view, the main aspect that differentiate them from Michael Ruse’s argument is the fact that genetic engineering should only be used restrictively if it is to be used for genetic therapy which they think as morally right whereas it would be morally wrong if the process is to select only the trait to be modified without the consideration for the greater net welfare of the organism (Umass, 2005). This is the same principle that makes the stand of the Council for Responsible Genetics. They insist that there should be an agreement on the proper code of responsibility when dealing with the manipulation of the genes of any organisms. Such act will definitely minimize the possible drawbacks of taking the power to change nature. This will ensure that the primary goal of genetic manipulation is to address the need to make it beneficial for the betterment of mankind. References: Wikipedia. 2007. Michael Ruse. Wikepedia-The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved May 9, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Ruse. Umass. 2005. Glover: Objection on Genetic Engineering. Umass Office of Information technologies. Retrieved May 9, 2007. Peter Singer-Bernard Rollin There is a good comparison between Peter Singer’s approach to the ethical values for animals and Bernard Rollin’s perception on how to take care of the human’s appeal to animals. On the part of peter singer, he intends to provide a clear view of treating animals as somewhat equal to the dignity of the humans. He lobbied for the special treatment on other organisms to be treated also as humans who have rights and privileges of living a peaceful and safe life. He has started the animal liberation movement which dramatically intends to free the animals from the intention of humans to use them for their commodities. On the other hand, Bernard Rollin plays an important role in signifying that science is never actually separated form ethics. In fact, science is full of ethical values. When it comes to animal sciences and suffering, he notes, there is an implied value-based ethical decision made whenever an animal's suffering or welfare is considered subservient to science or industry (The Pew, 2004). Emotivism is used in the argument of Singer while Rollin’s is implying Cultural Relativism. In searching for the better argument, the ethics provide by the Peter Singer is much more adhered to the true notion of ethics. His intention to set free the animals from human commercial use though genetics is directly capturing the essence of letting them live how nature intended them to survive. On the part of Rollin’s arguments, it can’t be denied that he also has a good approach in setting a standard notion about ethics and science. However, he missed the general point of protecting the animals but rather concentrates on the general perspective of influencing the people to lay down the fundamentals of ethical values. References: The Pew. 2004. Bernard Rollin: Of Animal Science and Ethics. The Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechnology. Retrieved May 9, 2007. O’Rourke, Kevin. 1986. Various Ethical Systems. Retrieved May 9, 2007 from . ; ;

Australian visions Essay

Different Australian visions are often portrayed in various texts and motion pictures. Australian film Strictly Ballroom 1992 is a great example as the director uses very over-the-top and theatrical style of filmmaking to present a humorous story that reflects various ideals in Australian society with cinematography and film techniques. The movie not only showcases the persona of the underdog especially through the character of Fran, but also illustrates the concept of multiculturalism and the idea of achieving dreams on the land of Australia, which are all concepts that relates to different aspect of Australian visions. On the other hand the poem ‘My country’ written by Dorothea McKellar, expresses other ideals of Australia that are more directly related with the land. Through the use of poetic techniques such as metaphor the poet was able to depict both the natural danger and beauty of the nation that are also valued as important part of Australian visions. One of the main focuses of the movie Strictly Ballroom is the characteristic of the underdog, a term that is closely associated with Australian values. The belief of giving everyone a fair go is fully expressed through the story arc of Fran, whom like the ugly duckling was transformed into something beautiful by the end of the movie. This concept is expressed through the Baz Luhrmann’s portray of this character. The juxtaposition between her first appearance and her performance at the end fully showcases Fran’s role as the underdog. This is reinforced with her red dress and the lighting used during the ending of the movie. Differs to other contestants’ clothes that looked superficial and over-the-top, the authentic colour of red used for Fran made her stood out as a glamorous, confident and beautiful woman, which is completely different to her seemingly unattractive first appearance from the start of the film. This is further on supported by the lighting of the movie, which not only focuses on her and Scott’s dance, but also stresses the affect of the red costume, making the dress almost a dramatic symbol of her successful transformation and achievement within this film. On the other hand, the impact of her appearance also fully represents Australian’s idealisation of the underdog. Another theme of Strictly Ballroom is the idea of multiculturalism as this movie depicts the transformed modern society that accepts and embraces cultural differences.  This is expressed through the use of music in the film. For most part of the movie the music used is traditional ballroom scores or Australian classic songs such as ‘time after time’, which makes the simple instrumental Spanish music played in Fran’s house stood out. This not only illustrates the differences between Fran and Scott’s background but also puts the audience into the character’s shoes to experience another type of dancing and culture that exists on the land of Australia. This concept is again strengthened at the last scene of the movie when all the audiences joined with Scott’s parents and danced together. The long shot that presents the unified crowd combines with mid shots that focus on specific people like Fran’s father who has different background reinforce the positive connotation of multiculturalism. This also presents Strictly Ballroom as a movie that mirrored the value of contemporary Australian society, which is all about acceptance and embracement. The pursue for dream is a concept that is highly valued in Australia and the movie Strictly Ballroom relate this idea with the notion of overcoming fear and the challenge of authority. The focus on lines such as â€Å"A life lived in fear is a life half lived† shows the importance of this in relation to the character’s will of achieving their goals. However their desire is often dishearten by the dancing federation. The continuous use of low angle shots and the lack of music playing when characters such as Barry Fife talked establish their state of power, which the main characters have to conquer. This also made the scene from end of the movie highly symbolic. With the success of Scott and Fran’s performance, there was a high angle shot depicting a falling Fife who tumbled with the trophies on the table that contrasted with the previous use of low angel shots. This scene not only served as a comic relief for its audience but also represents the downfall of the authority, stressing the significance of this confrontation in terms of the Scott and Fran’s accomplish of their dream. In context of this film, these ideas reflect the possibility of reaching one’s goal in Australia. Just like the persona of the underdog this also relate to the stereotypical notion that this land typify a sense of hope and opportunity. My country written by Dorothea Mackellar is a poem that illustrates both the natural beauty and danger of Australia, depicting very different visions of the same nation in comparison to Strictly Ballroom. The poet’s repeated usage of various stones to describe the nature  scenery of this country not only stresses the authenticity of those features, but also made the stones a metaphor for the land’s flawlessness. This is seen through lines such as ‘An opal-hearted country’ and ‘Sapphire-misted mountain’, which continuously reinforce the genuine notion of beauty in Australia. On the other hand Mackellar also uses personification to describe the danger of this land. Lines such as ‘Her beauty and her terror’ and ‘her pitiless blue sky’ strengthen the image of the threating nature environment, giving the readers a real sense of fear and adoration for the poet’s country. Even though this text shared limited similari ty with Baz Luhrmann’s Strictly Ballroom, it still manages to express visions and depictions of Australia that is highly valued in this nation.

 Andy Mulligan’s Novel “Trash” Essay

Andy Mulligan’s 2010 Novel Trash explores the vital idea of poverty demonstrated by the condition Behala a trash dump, the area Gardo, Raphael and Rat call home, it appears a desparately squalid land where the most impoverished people dig through mountains of garbage to carve out a livelihood for themselves and their families.  Andy mulligan persuades throughout the book that status or wealth does not affect anyone’s resourcefulness. The boys teach us about resourcefulness and how we should never stop trying and is a key idea that strengthens this book. Raphael found a small leather bag and chose not to give it in to the police. That decision brought with it terrifying consequences. â€Å"The man was shaking, and everything was spinning, and there was my blood.† Soon the dumpsite boys used all of their cunning and courage to stay ahead of their pursuers. â€Å"Some other part of me begging me not to give it up maybe for Jose Angelico†. It was up to Raphael, Gardo, and Rat—boys who have no education, no parents, no homes, and no money to solve the mystery. Andy mulligan has written a powerful story about unimaginable poverty and the ambition that can transcend it. The world we are taken into in Trash was realistic and distressing at times. Especially if you think about the millions of children around the world who live in such conditions. â€Å"The absence of money is drought in which nothing can grow. Nobody knows the value of water until they have lived in a dry place like Behala.† Raphael and his friends Gardo and Jun-Jun are characters who are never sorry for themselves. They know life is tough and they get on with things, finding the positive in many things we take Andy mulligan informs us that key to success Is friendship is and teamwork. He ends the novel with the protagonist Raphael, Gardo and rat starting their new life together. In the course of the novel, they faced many challenges and their friendships grows. He shows the meaning of friendship through the bond between Raphhael and Gardo throughout the book. Gardo is like a big brother to Raphael. He is strong and protective, never leaving Raphael’s side. The two go through everything together. Such as when Raphael is arrested, Gardo feels it too, â€Å"Gardo was right with me at once, and he was talking fast, saying, â€Å"What are you doing? What has he done?† P. 56. This tells the reader just how much Gardo cares about Raphael and through out the whole book Gardo continues to display his caring nature.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson outlines eight stages in the psychosocial development of a healthy human being, in which the stages are characterized by conflicts. The ego is at the center of all these developments (Wagner, 2005). Infancy This stage is from birth up to 18 months. During this time, the child's ego develops trust and the central figure in his universe is his mother. How he trusts or mistrusts those around him will depend on his maternal relationship. The child's experience at this stage could help mold how he will interact with people in his adult life.In the movie â€Å"Psycho (1960),† Norman only had his mother since birth. They were very close that he considers her his only friend. Norman was not weaned from his dependence that he carried it all throughout his adulthood. When his parent found a new lover, it made Norman so jealous that he killed her. He resolved his guilt by keeping his mother's corpse in the house. Muscular-Anal The second stage in the psychosocial development is from 18 months to three years. At this point of a child's development, Erikson explains that there is a growing sense of independence that is being experienced by the child.It's important for parents to understand the child's need for support because it would tell him that you are there to help develop his capabilities. There would be constant conflict if the parent won't learn to give in to the child. The child experiences conflicting feelings of initiative and doubt at this point. Psychosocial Development 2 The movie â€Å"Baby Geniuses,† shows a bunch of toddlers who are being kept in a lab so that researchers would understand a universal secret. However, the toddler Sly is showing off his independence by wanting to escape from the lab, and to which he actually succeeds.His escape is just the start of a series of antics that toddlers have to do in order to stop the designs of an evil scientist. Play Age The child at this point, from three to six years old, is already l earning basic skills and how to master the things around him. The child displays initiative and the courage to complete tasks. He also shows the capacity to make decisions for himself. At the same time, he may also feel guilty if he is unable to complete something that he wants to do. When the result of his initiative is negative, this may make the child uneasy and resort to displaying aggressiveness or inhibition.The parents must balance the initiative and guilt by giving the child tasks that are appropriate for his age. In the movie â€Å"300,† Spartans shun deformities and anything that is not perfect in their eyes. As a young boy, Leonides was already trained to prepare himself to become king. Play for them involves fighting and brawling. Early on, he already knew that he must achieve certain tasks to prove his worth. He needed to survive being out in the wilds with only himself to depend on. Leonides was able to overcome the tests and he returned to Sparta as a man. Scho ol AgeIn the school age, from seven to 10 years old, a child has to find balance between doing too much and doing too little. If a child does too many complex tasks, he forgets to have fun like Psychosocial Development 3 other children. But when he gets to do very little, the chance for success is slim. This could result to inferiority. Adults around the child must strike a balance between industry and inferiority in order to mold the child into a competent individual. Without the proper balance, the child will grow up feeling inferior to his peers in terms of social skills.John Nash, the genius from the movie â€Å"A Beautiful Mind,† suffers from inferiority complex as a result of his being aloof during the school age. He preferred academic tasks rather than being with other kids his age. He was always alone. As a result, Nash didn't know how to be close to other people. Nash was not able to resolve the conflict on his own. He talked about his fears and frustrations concerni ng the opposite sex to his roommate. Adolescence Between 10 and 17 years of age, an adolescent is conscious of how others look at him.It is important that at this stage the adolescent is reassured of his worth as a person. An adolescent who receives good familial support will often behave better among his peers. This is the point when the adolescent will be aware of his sexual identity. The adolescent either develops his own identity or be confused about it. The movie â€Å"Boys Don't Cry,† is the story of Brandon Teena who was born a female but chose to become male in high school. This identity change was the result of a sexual assault that Brandon experienced at the hand of a male relative.No one, except his mother, knew that Brandon was female. He dated several girls in high school. Psychosocial Development 4 Young Adulthood The young adult stage, according to Erikson, is between 18 to 40 years old. This is the point where the adult chooses between intimacy or isolation. A t the early part of this stage, the person is interested in friendships and blending his identity with those of his friends. Later on, the young adult becomes ready for an intimate and close relationship with another individual.At the same time, the young adult must understand and not fear isolation because this would come handy in later years. Rejection, break-ups and being alone are things that a young adult must be able to handle. Andy Stitzer, a typical nerd in the movie â€Å"A Forty Year Old Virgin,† is a man who understands being alone. He has never been in an intimate relationship with another person. He was finally convinced to become intimate with a girl by his friends. This leads to Andy welcoming more people in his life and gaining new friends and acquaintances. Middle AdulthoodThe middle adulthood stage comes when a person reaches 40 years old and ends at 65 years old. At this point, the person is either driven by the need to become a guide to the younger generat ion or be complacent and let the years keep him in stagnation. Tony Starks, or the â€Å"Iron Man,† is a 40 something arms manufacturer who had a change of heart after his captivity. He became engaged in correcting the mistakes he made in the past to preserve the world for the future generations. Instead of making arms to increase his wealth, he turned into a superhero to save those in need.Psychosocial Development 5 Late Adulthood From 65 years onwards, the person enters the late adulthood phase. During these years, the person looks back on the past years and evaluates the kind of life he lived. From this, the person will either feel that he has live a life of integrity, or he will be in despair (Clifton & Davis, 1995) . If there is gladness for the good times, acceptance for what could not be, and forgiveness for mistakes, then the person will be at peace and become prepared for whatever the years are yet to bring.But for the person who does not learn to accept and forgive, he has a tendency to suffer depression. Edward Cole, a billionaire in the movie â€Å"Bucketlist,† had lived a life of eccentricity and isolation. But after he was diagnosed with cancer in his later years, Cole became friends with another cancer patient Carter Chambers. The two embarked on a life-changing journey, which turned Cole into a better person. By accepting his mistakes and doing something about them, Cole was able to enjoy the last of his days, free from guilt and other burdens. ReferencesChild Development Institute, LLC. Stages of Social-Emotional Development In Children and Teenagers. Retrieved August 24, 2008, from http://www. childdevelopmentinfo. com/development/erickson. shtml Clifton, A. , & Davis, D. (1995). Psychosocial Theory: Erikson. Haverford Home Page. Retrieved August 24, 2008, from http://www. haverford. edu/psych/ddavis/p109g/erikson. stages. html Wagner, K. V. (2005). Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development. About. com: Psychology. Retrieved August 24, 2008, from http://psychology. about. com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/psychosocial_3. htm